Lingua Questionnaire
1. Syntax
1.1. General
questions
1.1.1. Sentence-types
1.1.1.1. Does the language make any
difference between direct speech and quoted speech?
If so, how is this indicated?
1.1.1.2. How are the different types of
interrogative sentence marked?
In this and similar sections the linguist
should pay attention to the following types of phenomena:
word order differences
affixes, clitic particles, tag-questions,
etc.
suprasegmental phenomena: intonation, etc.
At least the following types of interrogative
sentence will probably occur:
1.1.1.2.1. Yes-no questions (i.e. questions
to which the answer is yes or no) (for questions of focusing, see 1.9):
1.1.1.2.1.1. Neutral (no predisposition to
expect either answer)
1.1.1.2.1.2. Leading:
1.1.1.2.1.2.1. expecting the
answer yes
1.1.1.2.1.2.2. expecting the
answer no
1.1.1.2.1.3. Alternative
1.1.1.2.2. Question-word questions (e.g. What do you want ?)
1.1.1.2.2.1. What elements of the sentence
can be questioned`?
1.1.1.2.2.1.1. which
constituents of the main clause?
1.1.1.2.2.1.2. which
constituents of which types of subordinate clauses?
Can elements which normally appear in the
position next to a subordinating conjunction be questioned? Answer this
question also for nonfinite clauses and nominalized clauses.
1.1.1.2.2.1.3. which
constituents of noun phrases?
1.1.1.2.2.1.4. which elements
of prepositional phrases?
1.1.1.2.2.1.5. which elements
of coordinate structures?
1.1.1.2.2.1.6. is it possible
to question more than one thing in a sentence?
If so which combinations of the types
discussed above are possible?
1.1.1.2.2.2. What happens to the questioned
element?
1.1.1.2.2.2.1. no change
1.1.1.2.2.2.2. moved to initial
position
1.1.1.2.2.2.3. moved to
preverbal position
1.1.1.2.2.2.4. clefted
1.1.1.2.2.2.5. forms the
intonation nucleus
1.1.1.2.2.2.6. other
possibilities
1.1.1.2.2.2.7. if the
questioned element is moved, can other elements of the clause be moved with it?
If so, which?
1.1.1.2.2.2.8. if more than one
element is questioned describe what happens
1.1.1.2.3. Echo-questions (i.e. a question
asking for clarification on what the previous speaker has said)
1.1.1.2.3.1. Yes-no echo-questions, e.g.
Speaker A: I'm going to the harbour.
Speaker B: (You're going) to the harbour?
Speaker A: Yes.
1.1.1.2.3.2. Question-word echo-questions,
e.g.
Speaker A: I'm going to the harbour.
Speaker B : ( You 're going) where ?
Speaker A: To the harbour.
or
Speaker A: Why is Bill shooting at the tin?
Speaker B: Why is who shooting at what?
Speaker A: Why is Bill shooting at the tin?
1.1.1.2.3.3. Yes-no question
echo-questions, e.g.
Speaker A: Are you going to the harbour?
Speaker B: Am I going to the harbour? I
suppose so.
1.1.1.2.3.4. Question-word question
echo-questions, e.g.
Speaker A: Where are you going?
Speaker B: Where am I going ? To the
harbour.
1.1.1.2.3.5. Can all elements of the
sentence be subject to echo-questioning? Which cannot?
1.1.1.2.3.6. Can more than one element at a
time be subject to echo-questioning?
If so, are there any restrictions?
1.1.1.2.3.7. How are the different elements
(i.e. different word-types) questioned?
1.1.1.2.4. Answers
1.1.1.2.4.1. Are answers marked as a
distinct speech act? Describe for:
1.1.1.2.4.1.1. yes-no questions
1.1.1.2.4.1.2. question-word
questions
(for instance, in Hungarian the focus of
the answer to a question-word question must occupy the same preverbal position
as the question-word in the question)
1.1.1.2.4.1.3. echo-questions
1.1.1.2.4.2. Can answers take the form of
incomplete sentences? Describe for:
1.1.1.2.4.2.1. yes-no questions
1.1.1.2.4.2.1.1. Are there
words for `yes', `no', `maybe'? If not, what form does the minimum answer take?
1.1.1.2.4.2.1.2. If there are,
how are they used in reply to negative and other leading questions?
1.1.1.2.4.2.2. question-word
questions
1.1.1.3. How are the different types of
imperative sentence marked?
1.1.1.3.1. Is there a special (positive)
imperative form?
1.1.1.3.1.1. in what person-number
combinations is this possible?
1.1.1.3.1.2. are there different degrees of
imperative?
1.1.1.3.2. Is there a special negative
imperative form?
1.1.1.3.2.1. in what person-number
combinations is this possible?
1.1.1.3.2.2. are there different degrees of
negative imperative?
1.1.1.3.3. Are there other means of
expressing the above types of imperative?
1.1.1.4. Are there other distinct
sentence-types in the language?
1.1.1.5. Are any sentence-types used
regularly in functions other than their normal ones (e.g. questions as
requests)? Describe any restrictions on such indirect speech acts, and any
means of indicating them, e.g. intonation.
1.1.2. Subordination
1.1.2.1. Are there any general markers of
subordination, e.g. word-order, particles (in what position?), verb
modification, etc.?
In the following, bear in mind that certain
phenomena may be restricted to main clauses; if so, describe (e.g. English
a) he ran away; b) away
he ran; c) I think that he ran away ; d) *I think that away he ran ).
1.1.2.2. Noun clauses
1.1.2.2.1. How are noun clauses marked in
general? What is their position relative to their superordinate clause?
1.1.2.2.2. Are there different types of
noun clause? Specify.
1.1.2.2.3. How are indirect statements
marked?
1.1.2.2.4. How are indirect questions
marked? Answer with reference to section 1.1.1.2.
1.1.2.2.5. How are indirect commands
marked? Answer with reference to section 1.1.1.3.
1.1.2.2.6. Can any of the above types of
clause be nonfinite (infinitive, participial construction, nominalization,
etc.)? For each different possibility answer the following questions:
1.1.2.2.6.1. which verbal categories are
lost and which are retained? (see 2.1.3)
1.1.2.2.6.2. how is the verb made
nonfinite?
1.1.2.2.6.3. which arguments may be
omitted?
1.1.2.2.6.4. are the arguments that are
retained changed in any way?
1.1.2.2.6.5. is any morphological material
inserted? for instance, prepositions before arguments.
1.1.2.2.6.6. can adverbials be present, and
if so do they take the form of adjectives or are they changed in other ways?
Discuss for different types of adverbial.
1.1.2.2.6.7. are nominalizations marked by
a special word order?
1.1.2.3. Adjective clauses (relative
clauses)
1.1.2.3.1. How are adjective clauses
marked?
1.1.2.3.2. Is there a distinction between
restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses? Specify.
1.1.2.3.3. What is the position of the head
noun?
1.1.2.3.3.1. before the relative clause
1.1.2.3.3.2. after the relative clause
1.1.2.3.3.3. internal to the relative
clause; where precisely?
1.1.2.3.4. Is the element in the relative
clause corresponding to the headnoun (i.e. the relativized element)
1.1.2.3.4.1. preserved in full?
optionally/obligatorily
1.1.2.3.4.2. replaced by 1. a personal
pronoun? optionally/obligatorily 2. a relative pronoun? optionally/obligatorily
3. an invariant particle? optionally/obligatorily
1.1.2.3.4.3. deleted?
1.1.2.3.4.4. other treatment
1.1.2.3.5. Is the element resulting from
the process described in 1.1.2.3.4
1.1.2.3.5.1. preserved in the same position?
1.1.2.3.5.2. moved to the position next to
the noun phrase containing the head noun?
1.1.2.3.5.3. moved to another position?
1.1.2.3.6. Do headless relative clauses
occur? (e.g.
I saw what he wanted)
1.1.2.3.6.1. Are these marked in any
special way?
1.1.2.3.7. What elements can be
relativized? See section 1.1.1.2.2.1, and ask the corresponding questions where
relevant.
1.1.2.3.8. If the relativized element is
moved, can other elements of the clause be moved with it? If so, which?
1.1.2.3.9. Can any types of relative clause
be made nonfinite (e.g. by making the verb a participle)? Which types? See section
1.1.2.2.6 and ask the corresponding questions.
1.1.2.4. Adverb clauses
1.1.2.4.1. How are adverb clauses marked in
general? What is their position relative to their superordinate clause?
1.1.2.4.2. How are the following types of
adverb clause marked?
1.1.2.4.2.1. Time. Is there any distinction
made between 1. past 2. present 3. future
1.1.2.4.2.2. Manner
1.1.2.4.2.3. Purpose
1.1.2.4.2.4. Cause
1.1.2.4.2.5. Condition
1.1.2.4.2.6. Result
1.1.2.4.2.7. Degree 1. Comparative 2.
Equative
1.1.2.4.3. Can any of the above be made
nonfinite?
If so, see section 1.1.2.2.6, and ask the
corresponding questions for each type.
1.1.2.5. Sequence of tenses
1.1.2.5.1. Is there sequence of tenses?
If so, state which tenses in the main
clause require which tense in which types of subordinate clause.
1.2.
Structural questions
1.2.1. Internal structure of the sentence
1.2.1.1. Copular sentences
1.2.1.1.1. Copular sentences with nominal
complement
1.2.1.1.1.1. is there an overt be-copula?
optional/obligatory
1.2.1.1.1.2. how is the predicate noun
marked?
1.2.1.1.1.3. give the order of the
constituents.
1.2.1.1.2. Copular sentences with
adjectival complement
1.2.1.1.2.1. is there an overt be-copula? optional/obligatory
1.2.1.1.2.2. how is the complement
adjective marked?
1.2.1.1.2.3. give the order of the constituents.
1.2.1.1.3. Copular sentences with adverbial
complement
1.2.1.1.3.1. is there an overt be-copula? optional/obligatory
1.2.1.1.3.2. how is the complement
adverbial marked?
1.2.1.1.3.3. give the order of the
constituents.
1.2.1.1.4. In the case of copular sentences
without overt be-copula:
1.2.1.1.4.1. are the normal verbal
categories expressed (e.g. tense, etc.)?
1.2.1.1.4.2. if so, how is this done? For
example:
1.2.1.1.4.2.1. verbal affixes
affixed to the complement element.
1.2.1.1.4.2.2. verbal affixes
affixed to some other element.
1.2.1.1.4.2.3. other means.
1.2.1.1.5. Is it the case that the
be-copula can be/is omitted only in the least marked form, e.g. present tense,
third person singular?
1.2.1.1.6. Are there different types of
copula?
1.2.1.1.6.1. defining
1.2.1.1.6.2. identity
1.2.1.1.6.3. role
1.2.1.1.6.4. other (e.g. `become')
1.2.1.2. Verbal sentences
1.2.1.2.1. Are there verbs without
subjects, or with dummy subjects? optionally/obligatorily
1.2.1.2.2. Are there verbs without direct
objects? optionally/obligatorily?
1.2.1.2.3. Is there a separate category
indirect object (definable other than in semantic terms) which can be present?
optionally/obligatorily
1.2.1.2.4. What other kinds of arguments of
verbs are there? optionally/ obligatorily
1.2.1.2.5. What combinations of subject,
direct object, indirect object, and other arguments are found?
1.2.1.2.6. Give the order of the
constituents for the combination of verb, subject, and direct object, and also
for all the other combinations described in questions 1.2.1.2.1-5 above.
1.2.1.3. Adverbials
1.2.1.3.1. Do the following types of
adverbial occur?
1.2.1.3.1.1. adverbs
1.2.1.3.1.2. prepositional or
postpositional phrases
1.2.1.3.1.3. cases of noun phrases
1.2.1.3.1.4. adverbial clauses 1. finite,
2. nonfinite
1.2.1.3.2. For each case describe the
positional possibilities within the sentence.
If different subtypes have different
positional possibilities, e.g. different types of adverb, give details of
these. If different types or subtypes occur in the same sentence, what is their
relative order?
1.2.1.3.3. Are adverbials obligatory in any
constructions?
1.2.2. Adjective phrases
1.2.2.1. Is there any operational
definition for the adjective phrase?
By operational definition of a particular
constituent we mean a definition in terms such that by applying particular
procedures it is possible to definitely decide whether a particular element
falls under the definition or not. The operational definition of a constituent-type
might be made in terms of its internal cohesion, its external mobility, or in
terms of a particular type of affixation or marking.
1.2.2.2. Are there adjectives that take
arguments? optionally/obligatorily
1.2.2.2.1. Are there adjectives that occur in
subjectless sentences? optionally/obligatorily
1.2.2.2.2. Are there adjectives with direct
objects? optionally/obligatorily
1.2.2.2.3. Are there adjectives with
indirect objects? optionally/obligatorily
1.2.2.2.4. What other kinds of arguments
occur with adjectives? optionally/obligatorily
1.2.2.2.5. What combinations of arguments
are possible?
1.2.2.2.6. Give the order of the
constituents for all possible cases.
1.2.2.3. Which types of adverbials can
modify adjectives?
1.2.2.3.1. adverbs
1.2.2.3.2. prepositional or postpositional
phrases
1.2.2.3.3. cases of noun phrases
1.2.2.3.4. adverbial clauses 1. finite, 2.
nonfinite
1.2.2.3.5. for each of the above, describe
the relative order of adverbial and adjective.
1.2.2.4. What is the order of the
constituents if adjective, argument(s) and adverbial(s) are all present?
1.2.3. Adverbial phrase
1.2.3.1. Is there any operational
definition for the adverbial phrase? If so, describe.
1.2.3.2. Which types of adverbials can
modify adverbials?
1.2.3.2.1. adverbs
1.2.3.2.2. prepositional or postpositional
phrases
1.2.3.2.3. cases of noun phrases
1.2.3.2.4. adverbial clauses 1. full, 2.
reduced
1.2.3.3. What is the relative order of the
modifying and modified adverbials?
1.2.3.4. Are particular types of adverbial
restricted to modifying particular types of adverbial?
1.2.4. Prepositional phrases/postpositional
phrases
1.2.4.1. Is there any operational
definition for the pre-/postpositional phrase ?
1.2.4.2. Pre-/postpositional phrases and
their arguments:
1.2.4.2.1. Can pre-/postpositions occur
without arguments (objects), i.e. as `adverbs'?
1.2.4.2.2. Can pre-/postpositions occur
with more than one argument?
1.2.4.2.3. Can pre-/postpositions occur
with arguments other than noun phrases?
1.2.4.2.4. Can pre-/postpositions be
stranded (left behind) if their noun phrase is moved, e.g. English who are you insulted by?
1.2.4.3. What elements can modify
pre-/postpositions?
1.2.4.3.1. adverbs
1.2.4.3.2. pre-/postpositional phrases
1.2.4.3.3. cases of noun phrases
1.2.4.3.4. adverbial clauses 1. finite, 2.
nonfinite
1.2.4.3.5. for each of the above describe
the relative order of preposition/ postposition and modifier.
1.2.4.4. Are there pre-/postpositions that
can govern more than one case?
1.2.4.4.1. If so, does the choice of case
depend on the verb?
1.2.5. Noun phrase (nominal constituent)
1.2.5.1. Is there an operational definition
for the noun phrase? If so, describe.
1.2.5.2. Which of the following types of
modifier occur?
1.2.5.2.1. adjective
1.2.5.2.2. relative clause
1.2.5.2.3. possessive `adjective'
1.2.5.2.4. article
1.2.5.2.5. demonstrative `adjective'
1.2.5.2.6. quantifiers
1.2.5.2.7. adverbials
1.2.5.2.8. emphatic words
1.2.5.2.9. comparative/superlative/equative
structures
1.2.5.2.10. others
1.2.5.3. Is it possible to have more than
one of each type of modifier, and if so, is there an obligatory or preferred
order among subtypes (cf. the preferred orders among subtypes of adjectives in
English)? Describe fully.
1.2.5.4. Are there combinations of various
of the above types of modifier which are not admitted?
1.2.5.5. Describe the order of the head and
the various modifiers to cover all the possibilities.
1.3.
Coordination
1.3.1.1. What means are used for
coordinating sentences - list all such means and give the relative order of the
sentences and the coordinators:
1.3.1.1.1. and-coordination
1.3.1.1.2.-but-coordination
1.3.1.1.3. or-coordination
1.3.1.1.4. any other types
1.3.1.2. Give full details on the following
possibilities:
1.3.1.2.1. one coordinator for each element
that is coordinated
1.3.1.2.2. one less coordinator than the
number of such elements
1.3.1.2.3. one coordinator irrespective of
the number of such elements
1.3.1.3. What means are used for
coordinating the major categories of the sentence?
1.3.1.4. Is the means used for expressing
coordination and accompaniment (comitative) the same?
1.3.1.5. Is there a degree of structural
parallelism required between elements of the same category before they can be
coordinated? If so give full details.
1.3.1.5.1. Can adjectives and participial
constructions be coordinated?
1.3.1.5.2. Can nouns and nominalized
constructions be coordinated?
1.3.1.5.3. Can the various different types
of adverbial be coordinated?
1.3.1.5.4. Can active and passive verbs be
coordinated?
1.3.1.5.5. Are there any verb categories
that cannot be coordinated with each other?
1.3.2.1. What elements in the sentence can
be omitted under identity in coordination?
1.3.2.2. What elements in the sentence
cannot be omitted under identity in coordination?
1.3.3. Repeat the above two questions for
the following major categories
1.3.3.1. noun phrase
1.3.3.2. adjective phrase
1.3.3.3. adverb phrase
1.4. Negation
1.4.1. How is sentence negation expressed?
List negation elements and give their
position in the sentence. Describe also any effects they have on the rest of
the sentence.
1.4.2. How is constituent negation
expressed?
List negation elements and give their
position relative to the rest of the constituent.
1.4.3. If there is more than one negation
element in a sentence is the result positive or negative?
1.4.4. In coordinated structures are the
negation elements optionally or obligatorily attracted to the coordinator
position, combining with the coordinator? If so, describe the forms that result
from this.
1.4.5. Can the negation of a verb in a
subordinate clause be expressed by the negation of the verb of the immediately
higher clause / a more distant higher clause?
1.5. Anaphora
1.5.1. By which of the following means is
anaphora expressed?
1.5.1.1. deletion
1.5.1.2. deletion if the element concerned
is marked on the verb
1.5.1.3. ordinary personal pronoun
1.5.1.4. reflexive pronoun
1.5.1.5. special anaphoric pronoun
1.5.1.6. other means: describe (e.g. the former, the latter)
1.5.2. In which of the following situations
is anaphora expressed by means of the various above-mentioned types possible,
and in which direction? Describe any restrictions within any of the
possibilities listed below:
1.5.2.1. within the clause
1.5.2.2. between coordinate structures
1.5.2.3. between superordinate and
subordinate clauses, including nonfinite subordinate clauses
1.5.2.3.1. in the order superordinate
clause-subordinate clause
1.5.2.3.2. in the order subordinate
clause-superordinate clause
1.5.2.4. between different subordinate
clauses
1.5.2.5. between different sentences
1.5.3. Are elements located next to
complementizers (subordinating conjunctions) subject to the above anaphoric
processes?
1.6.
Reflexives
1.6.1. By which of the following means is
reflexivity expressed?
1.6.1.1. invariable reflexive pronoun
(clitic or nonclitic)
1.6.1.2. variable reflexive pronoun (cf.
2.1.2.2) (clitic or nonclitic)
1.6.1.3. verbal affix (cf. 2.1.3.6.8)
1.6.1.4. other means; specify in detail
1.6.2. Is the scope of reflexivity
restricted to the clause, i.e. must antecedent and reflexive element be in the
same clause?
1.6.3. For intraclause reflexivity where
the reflexive element is a verbal affix describe:
1.6.3.1. the possible syntactic functions
of the antecedent
1.6.3.1.1. subject only
1.6.3.1.2. other possibilities - if so,
give details
1.6.3.2. the possible syntactic functions
of the reflexive marker
1.6.3.2.1. direct object
1.6.3.2.2. indirect object
1.6.3.2.3. other possibilities - give
details
1.6.3.3. restrictions on any combinations
of 1.6.3.1 and 1.6.3.2
1.6.4. If the reflexive element is not a
verbal affix, describe its positional possibilities within the clause. If the
position of this element is not restricted to one place in the clause it may be
simpler to answer this question in combination with the following one.
1.6.5. If the reflexive element is not a
verbal affix, can the following relations between antecedent and reflexive
exist?
|
|
Antecedent:
|
Reflexive:
|
|
1.6.5.1.
|
subject
|
direct object
|
|
1.6.5.2.
|
subject
|
modifier of direct object
|
|
1.6.5.3.
|
subject
|
indirect object (zero- or case-marking)
|
|
1.6.5.4.
|
subject
|
modifier of such indirect object
|
|
1.6.5.5.
|
subject
|
indirect object (adposition-marking)
|
|
1.6.5.6.
|
subject
|
modifier of such indirect object
|
|
1.6.5.7.
|
subject
|
copular complement
|
|
1.6.5.8.
|
subject
|
modifier of copular complement
|
|
1.6.5.9.
|
subject
|
subject-complement (cf. 2.1.1.2.10)
|
|
1.6.5.10.
|
subject
|
modifier of subject-complement
|
|
1.6.5.11.
|
subject
|
object-complement
|
|
1.6.5.12.
|
subject
|
modifier of object-complement
|
|
1.6.5.13.
|
subject
|
object of adjective
|
|
1.6.5.14.
|
subject
|
modifier of such object
|
|
1.6.5.15.
|
subject
|
agent in passive/pseudopassive/impersonal constructions
|
|
1.6.5.16.
|
subject
|
modifier of such agent
|
|
1.6.5.17.
|
subject
|
element in other adpositional phrase or
case-marked modifier (adverbial)
|
|
1.6.5.18.
|
subject
|
modifier of such element
|
|
1.6.5.19-36.
|
modifier of subject
|
as in 1-18
|
|
1.6.5.37.
|
direct object
|
subject
|
|
1.6.5.38.
|
direct object
|
modifier of subject
|
|
1.6.5.39-54.
|
direct object
|
as in 3-18
|
|
1.6.5.55-56.
|
modifier of direct object
|
as in 37-38
|
|
1.6.5.57-72.
|
modifier of direct object
|
as in 3-18
|
|
1.6.5.73-74.
|
indirect object (case/zero)
|
as in 37-38
|
|
1.6.5.75-76.
|
indirect object (case/zero)
|
as in 1-2
|
|
1.6.5.77-88.
|
indirect object (case/zero)
|
as in 7-18
|
|
1.6.5.89-90.
|
modifier of such indirect object
|
as in 37-38
|
|
1.6.5.91-92.
|
modifier of such indirect object
|
as in 1-2
|
|
1.6.5.93-104.
|
modifier of such indirect object
|
as in 7-18
|
|
1.6.5.105-106.
|
indirect object (adpositional)
|
as in 37-38
|
|
1.6.5.107-108.
|
indirect object (adpositional)
|
as in 1-2
|
|
1.6.5.109-120.
|
indirect object (adpositional)
|
as in 7-18
|
|
1.6.5.121-122.
|
modifier of such indirect object
|
as in 37-38
|
|
1.6.5.123-124.
|
modifier of such indirect object
|
as in 1-2
|
|
1.6.5.125-136.
|
modifier of such indirect object
|
as in 7-18
|
|
1.6.5.137-138.
|
copular complement
|
as in 37-38
|
|
1.6.5.139-140.
|
copular complement
|
as in 17-18
|
|
1.6.5.141-142.
|
modifier of copular complement
|
as in 37-38
|
|
1.6.5.143-144.
|
modifier of copular complement
|
as in 17-18
|
|
1.6.5.145-146.
|
subject-complement
|
as in 37-38
|
|
1.6.5.147-148.
|
modifier of subject-complement
|
as in 37-38
|
|
1.6.5.149-150.
|
object-complement
|
as in 37-38
|
|
1.6.5.151-152.
|
modifier of object-complement
|
as in 37-38
|
|
1.6.5.153-154.
|
adjectival object
|
as in 37-38
|
|
1.6.5.155-156.
|
modifier of such object
|
as in 37-38
|
|
1.6.5.157-158.
|
agent in passive, etc.
|
as in 37-38
|
|
1.6.5.159-162.
|
agent in passive, etc.
|
as in 3-6
|
|
1.6.5.163-164.
|
agent in passive, etc.
|
as in 17-19
|
|
1.6.5.165-166.
|
modifier of agent
|
as in 37-38
|
|
1.6.5.167-170.
|
modifier of agent
|
as in 3-6
|
|
1.6.5.171-172.
|
modifier of agent
|
as in 17-18
|
|
1.6.5.173-174.
|
element in adverbial (cf.17)
|
as in 37-38
|
|
1.6.5.175-192.
|
element in adverbial (cf.17)
|
as in 1-18
|
|
1.6.5.193-194.
|
modifier of such element
|
as in 37-38
|
|
1.6.5.195-212.
|
modifier of such element
|
as in 1-18
|
1.6.6. Can reflexive relations exist within
nominalized clauses?
If so describe any deviations from the
possibilities discussed in the previous questions on finite structures.
1.6.7. Can reflexive relations exist within
ordinary noun phrases? Describe the possibilities.
1.6.8. Do reflexive structures occur
without any overt antecedent, e.g. in nonfinite clauses, nominalizations, or
ordinary noun phrases (e.g. Dutch het verhaal over zichzelfwas spannend Ôthe (my, your, etc.) story about myself,
yourself, etc. was excitingÕ).
1.6.9. Do the reflexive forms have any
other uses, e.g.
1.6.9.1. reflexive pronoun as emphatic
pronoun?
1.6.9.2. reflexive verb-form as general
detransitivizer?
1.6.9.3. others?
1.7.
Reciprocals. Repeat the
same questions as under reflexive (1.6)
1.8.
Comparison
1.8.1. By which of the following means is
comparison expressed?
1.8.1.1. comparative element associated
with the parameter of comparison (e.g. bigger, more a man, etc.), and a
comparative particle associated with the comparative clause or standard of
comparison.
1.8.1.2. comparative element as above, and
a case or preposition associated with the noun forming the standard of
comparison.
1.8.1.3. a comparative particle associated
with the comparative clause or standard of comparison only
1.8.1.4. other means - specify.
1.8.2. What elements in the sentence can be
omitted under identity between the comparative clause and the clause it is
subordinate to?
1.8.3. What elements cannot be omitted
under these conditions?
1.8.4. What elements must be omitted under
these conditions?
1.8.5. Is there a clear difference between
the two types of comparative structure, if both exist:
1.8.5.1. comparative particle plus reduced
comparative clause
1.8.5.2. preposition plus standard of
comparison
1.8.6. How is correlative comparison
expressed (e.g. English the hotter the better; the more he eats the fatter he
gets; the heavier the lorry, the worse the smell)?
1.9.
Equatives. Repeat the same
questions as under comparatives (1.8)
1.10. Possession
1.10.1. How are sentences expressing
possession constructed?
1.10.2. Is there any difference between the
expression of alienable and inalienable possession or subtypes of these?
Describe.
1.10.3. Is there any difference between the
expression of temporary and permanent possession? Describe.
1.10.4. Is there any difference in the
expression of possession relative to persons, animals, and things? Describe.
1.10.5. Is there any difference in the
expression of present and past possession? Describe.
1.11. Emphasis
1.11.1. How is sentence emphasis expressed?
1.11.1.1. noncontradictory emphasis
1.11.1.2. contradictory emphasis
1.11.2.1. How is (a) noncontrastive (b)
contrastive constituent emphasis expressed?
1.11.2.1.1. stress/accent
1.11.2.1.2. particle - if so, what is the
position of this particle?
1.11.2.1.3. movement (without dislocation,
cf.1.11.2.6) of emphasized element to:
1.1.2.1.3.1. initial position
1.11.2.1.3.2. final position
1.11.2.1.3.3. preverbal position
1.11.2.1.3.4. other positions - specify
1.11.2.1.4. clefting (e.g. English itÕs John that came)
1.11.2.1.5. pseudoclefting (e.g. English JohnÕs the one who came)
1.11.2.1.6. dislocation (separated from
rest of sentence by pause)
1.11.2.1.6.1. left dislocation
1.11.2.1.6.2. right dislocation
1.11.2.1.6.3. other dislocation - specify
1.11.2.1.7. other possibilities - specify
1.11.2.1.8. what possible combinations of
1.11.2.1.1-7 exist?
1.11.2.2. Which elements can be emphasized
by the various means?
1.11.2.2.1.1. noun phrase
1.11.2.2.1.2. adjective (a) predicative,
(b) attributive
1.11.2.2.1.3. verb
1.11.2.2.1.4. adverbial (specify for each
type)
1.11.2.2.2.1. constituents of main clause
1.11.2.2.2.2. constituents of subordinate
clauses (a) finite, (b) nonfinite (specify which types of subordinate clauses)
1.11.2.2.2.3. constituents of noun phrase
1.11.2.2.2.4. constituents of coordinate
construction
1.11.2.2.2.5. more than one constituent
simultaneously (specify which combinations are possible)
1.11.2.2.3. If movement is involved, is it
the case that
1.11.2.2.3.1. a copy of the emphasized
element is left behind?
1.11.2.2.3.2. a proform of the emphasized
element is left behind?
1.11.2.2.3.3. a particle is left behind?
1.11.2.2.3.4. nothing is left behind?
1.11.3. How is the focus of a yes-no-question
indicated? Compare 1.11.2 for possibilities.
1.12. Topic
1.12.1. Are there means of indicating the
topic of a sentence? If so, how?
1.12.1.1. particle (give its position)
1.12.1.2. movement, without dislocation, to
1.12.1.2.1. initial position
1.12.1.2.2. final position
1.12.1.2.3. other position (specify)
1.12.1.3. dislocation to
1.12.1.3.1. initial position
1.12.1.3.2. final position
1.12.1.3.3. other position
1.12.1.4. verb-agreement
1.12.1.5. other means (specify)
1.12.1.6. combinations of the above
1.12.2. Which elements can be topicalized
by the various means?
1.12.2.1.1. noun phrase
1.12.2.1.2. adjective (a) predicative, (b)
attributive
1.12.2.1.3. verb
1.12.2.1.4. adverbial (specify for each
type)
1.12.2.2.1. constituent of main clause
1.12.2.2.2. constituent of subordinate
clause (a) finite, (b) nonfinite (specify which types of subordinate clause)
1.12.2.2.3. constituent of noun phrases
1.12.2.2.4. constituent of coordinate
constructions
1.12.2.2.5. more than one constituent
simultaneously (specify which combinations are possible)
1.12.2.3. If movement is involved, is it
the case that:
1.12.2.3.1. a copy of the topicalized
element is left behind?
1.12.2.3.2. a proform of the topicalized
element is left behind?
1.12.2.3.3. a particle is left behind?
1.12.2.3.4. nothing is left behind?
1.12.3. For each of the above
possibilities, state whether topicalization is obligatory or optional, and if
optional the degree of preference for topicalizing.
1.13. Heavy
Shift
1.13.1. Are there processes in the language
by which structures consisting of a head with either a large number of
adjuncts, or one or more complex adjuncts - in other words a ÔheavyÕ structure
- are optionally or obligatorily moved to some other position in the sentence
than that which they would normally occupy?
1.13.2. What kind of structures are subject
to Heavy Shift?
1.13.2.1. adjective phrases
1.13.2.2. object noun phrases
1.13.2.3. adverb phrases
1.13.2.4. others
1.13.3. To what position are such
structures moved? Describe for each of the above.
1.13.3.1. the end of the constituent they
are immediate constituents of
1.13.3.2. some other location - specify
1.13.4. In the event of more than one such
heavy phrase being moved to the same position, what is their relative order?
1.13.5. Can Heavy Shift take place with
elements located next to complementizers (subordinating conjunctions)?
1.14. Other
movement processes
1.14.1. Describe any other processes
involving movement of an element from one position to another.
1.15. Minor
sentence-types
1.15.1. Are there any minor sentence-types
(e.g. English to the dungeons with him!; why do such a thing?; Dutch wat te doen?). Describe.
1.16. Are
there operational definitions for the following word-classes ?
1.16.1. noun
1.16.2. pronoun - different types
1.16.3. verb
1.16.4. adjective
1.16.5. pre-/postposition
1.16.6. numeral/quantifier
1.16.7. others
If so, describe.
2. Morphology
2.1.
inflection
2.1.1. Noun-inflection
2.1.1.1. Which of the following means are
used to express the syntactic and semantic functions of noun phrases?
2.1.1.1.1. bound affixes
2.1.1.1.2. morphophonemic alternations
alone (internal change)
2.1.1.1.3. clitic particles
2.1.1.1.4. pre-/postpositions
2.1.1.1.5. word order
2.1.1.1.6. derivational processes (e.g.
adjectivalization)
2.1.1.1.7. other means - specify
2.1.1.1.8. combinations of the above
2.1.1.2. How are the following syntactic
functions expressed? Give full details regarding the various means utilized,
their conditioning, and their productivity.
2.1.1.2.1. subject of intransitive verb
2.1.1.2.1.1. subject is agent (has control
over situation)
2.1.1.2.1.2. subject is not agent
(e.g. Bats as woʒe ÔI fell down (sc. and it was my own fault)Õ, agentive;
but so woʒe ÔI fell
down (sc. through no fault of my own)Õ, nonagentive)
2.1.1.2.2. subject of transitive verb
2.1.1.2.2.1. subject is agent
2.1.1.2.2.2. subject is not agent
2.1.1.2.3. subject of copular construction
2.1.1.2.4. direct object
2.1.1.2.4.1. subject expressed as free
element
2.1.1.2.4.2. subject expressed as bound
(affixal) element only
2.1.1.2.4.3. subject unexpressed
(In some languages if there is no subject
expressed the object will take a nominative case instead of an accusative
case.)
2.1.1.2.5. indirect object (if there are
several possibilities, describe any semantic differences)
2.1.1.2.6. object of comparison (e.g. Ôhe
is bigger
than meÕ)
2.1.1.2.7. object of equation (e.g. Ôhe is
as big as meÕ)
2.1.1.2.8. other objects governed by verbs
- list the possibilities and illustrate amply (we are concerned with the
ÔobjectsÕ of verbs which are distinguished in some way, e.g. by case, from
direct objects)
2.1.1.2.9. complement of copular
construction
2.1.1.2.9.1. defining, e.g. Ôhe is a manÕ
2.1.1.2.9.2. identity, e.g. Ôhe is JohnÕ
2.1.1.2.9.3. role, e.g. Ôhe is a soldierÕ
2.1.1.2.9.4. other copular verbs, e.g.
ÔbecomeÕ
2.1.1.2.10. subject-complement, e.g. ÔI was
made kingÕ
2.1.1.2.11. object-complement, e.g. Ôwe
made him
kingÕ
2.1.1.2.12. objects governed by adjectives,
e.g. Ôhe is
like his fatherÕ, Ôhe is
different
from his brotherÕ. List the possibilities and illustrate them
amply.
2.1.1.2.13. agent in passive/pseudopassive/impersonal constructions
2.1.1.2.14. topic (cf. section 1.12)
2.1.1.2.15. emphasized element (if
specially marked) (cf. section 1.11 )
2.1.1.3. Apply the questions of 2.1.1.2 to
all types of nonfinite or nominalized verb. Note any differences from the situation with finite verbs. The following
types of nonfinite or nominalized verb may occur:
2.1.1.3.1. ÔabsoluteÕ construction, e.g.
ÔJohn being a fool....Õ
2.1.1.3.2. infinitive, e.g. Ôfor me to go
to heaven...Õ
2.1.1.3.3. gerund (verbal noun), e.g.
ÔJohnÕs singing (of) two psalmsÕ
2.1.1.3.4. nominalization, e.g. ÔJohnÕs
refusal (refusing) of the offerÕ
2.1.1.4. How are the following nonlocal
semantic functions expressed?
2.1.1.4.1. benefactive e.g. ÔI did it for BillÕ
2.1.1.4.2. source ÔI heard it from BillÕ, Ôwool from a sheepÕ
2.1.1.4.3. instrumental ÔI hit him with a hammerÕ
2.1.1.4.3a. negative instrumental ÔI hit
him without
a hammerÕ
2.1.1.4.4. comitative ÔI went with BillÕ
2.1.1.4.4a. negative comitative ÔI went without BillÕ
2.1.1.4.5. circumstance Ôa man with dirty handsÕ
2.1.1.4.5a. negative circumstance Ôa man without dirty handsÕ
2.1.1.4.6. possessive
If different types of possessive occur,
give full details of all the various types. The following types of distinction
seem to occur:
2.1.1.4.6.1. alienable-inalienable
(sometimes different types of inalienable possession)
2.1.1.4.6.2. temporary-permanent
2.1.1.4.6.3. present-past
2.1.1.4.7. possessed (may well have no
special marking)
2.1.1.4.7.1. Is there a distinction between
alienable and inalienable possessedness?
2.1.1.4.8. quality
a man of/with humour
2.1.1.4.8a. negative quality
a man without humour
2.1.1.4.8b. reference quality
the honour of the man
2.1.1.4.9. quantity
a boat of a thousand tons
2.1.1.4.9a. reference quantity
a pound of sugar
2.1.1.4.10. material
a house of bricks
This house is built of bricks.
2.1.1.4.10a. negative material
This house was build without bricks.
2.1.1.4.11. manner
He kissed her with verve.
2.1.1.4.11a. negative manner
He kissed her without verve.
2.1.1.4.12. cause
exhausted by his wounds
2.1.1.4.13. purpose
I used it for my work.
2.1.1.4.14. function
I used the stick as a club.
2.1.1.4.15. reference
I told him about the incident.
2.1.1.4.16. essive
I was in Berlin as a soldier.
2.1.1.4.17. translative
We appointed him as general.
2.1.1.4.18. part-whole
the head of the dog, the top of the tree
2.1.1.4.19. partitive
2.1.1.4.19.1. partitive numeral
2.1.1.4.19.2. nonpartitive numeral Ôtwo boysÕ (if specially marked)
2.1.1.4.19.3. partitive quantifier Ôsome of the boysÕ
2.1.1.4.19.4. nonpartitive quantifier Ôsome boysÕ (if specially marked), Ôsome cheese Ô
2.1.1.4.19.5. partitive negative quantifier
Ônone of the
boysÕ
2.1.1.4.19.6. nonpartitive negative
quantifier Ôno
boysÕ (if specially marked),
Ôno cheeseÕ
2.1.1.4.20. price ÔI bought it for two poundsÕ
2.1.1.4.21. value Ôa table worth five poundsÕ
2.1.1.4.22. distance ÔI chased him for a mileÕ
2.1.1.4.23. extent Ôa building a mile highÕ, Ôa car twelve feet longÕ
2.1.1.4.24. concessive Ôhe came despite the rainÕ
2.1.1.4.25. inclusion Ôeveryone including JohnÕ
2.1.1.4.26. exclusion Ôeveryone excluding/except JohnÕ
2.1.1.4.27. addition Ôthree people in addition to JohnÕ
2.1.1.4.28. vocative - is there a vocative
particle, e.g. English O, and if so, is it obligatory?
2.1.1.4.29. citation form
2.1.1.4.30. label form (e.g. for
shop-fronts, parcel-labels, etc.)
2.1.1.5. How are the following local
semantic functions expressed?
|
|
Type of location
|
at rest
|
motion to
|
motion from
|
motion past
|
|
2.1.1.5.1.
|
general
|
at
|
to
|
from
|
past
|
|
2.1.1.5.2.
|
proximate
|
near (to)
|
near
|
from near
|
near
|
|
2.1.1.5.3.
|
interior
|
in(side)
|
in(to)
|
out of
|
through
|
|
2.1.1.5.4.
|
exterior
|
outside
|
up to
|
away from
|
past
|
|
2.1.1.5.5.
|
anterior
|
in front of
|
in front of
|
from in front of
|
in front of
|
|
2.1.1.5.6.
|
posterior
|
behind
|
behind
|
from behind
|
behind
|
|
2.1.1.5.7.
|
superior
|
above/over
|
above
|
from above
|
over
|
|
2.1.1.5.8.
|
superior-contact
|
on
|
on(to)
|
off
|
over
|
|
2.1.1.5.8a.
|
surface
|
on
|
on(to)
|
off
|
over/across
|
|
2.1.1.5.9.
|
inferior
|
below/under
|
below/under
|
from under
|
under
|
|
2.1.1.5.10.
|
inferior-contact
|
under
|
under
|
from under
|
under
|
|
2.1.1.5.11.
|
lateral
|
beside
|
beside
|
from beside
|
past
|
|
2.1.1.5.12.
|
lateral-contact
|
on
|
on(to)
|
off
|
over, along
|
|
2.1.1.5.13.
|
citerior
|
on this side of
|
to this side of
|
from this side of
|
on this side of
|
|
2.1.1.5.14.
|
citerior-contact
|
on this side of
|
to this side of
|
from this side of
|
on this side of
|
|
2.1.1.5.15.
|
ulterior
|
beyond
|
beyond
|
from beyond
|
beyond
|
|
2.1.1.5.16.
|
ulterior-contact
|
on the other side of/across
|
across
|
from across
|
on the other side of
|
|
2.1.1.5.17.
|
medial (2)
|
between
|
between
|
from between
|
between
|
|
2.1.1.5.18.
|
medial (3+)
|
among
|
among
|
from among
|
through
|
|
2.1.1.5.19.
|
circumferential
|
—
|
—
|
—
|
round
|
|
2.1.1.5.20.
|
citerior-anterior
|
opposite
|
opposite
|
from opposite
|
on the other side
|
|
2.1.1.5.21.
|
interior (long object)
|
|
|
|
through/along
|
|
2.1.1.5.22.
|
exterior (long object)
|
|
|
|
past/along
|
|
2.1.1.5.23.
|
superior
|
|
|
|
along (above)
|
|
2.1.1.5.24.
|
superior-contact (long object)
|
|
|
|
along (on top of)
|
|
2.1.1.5.24a.
|
surface (long object)
|
|
|
|
along
|
|
2.1.1.5.25.
|
inferior (long object)
|
|
|
|
along (under)
|
|
2.1.1.5.26.
|
inferior-contact (long object)
|
|
|
|
along (under)
|
In types 21-26 we are concerned with motion
past a long object in the direction of its length. As far as the first three
columns are concerned there will normally be no difference from nonlong
objects. The following questions concern motion past a long object in the
direction at right angles to its length.
2.1.1.5.27. interior (long object) through/across
2.1.1.5.28. superior (long object) over
2.1.1.5.29. superior-contact (long object)
over
2.1.1.5.29a. surface (long object) across
2.1.1.6. The following questions are
concerned with location in time:
2.1.1.6.1. general
2.1.1.6.1.1. time of day Ôat 7 oÕclockÕ
2.1.1.6.1.2. period of day Ôin the
afternoonÕ
2.1.1.6.1.3. day of the week Ôon MondayÕ
2.1.1.6.1.4. month of the year Ôin JanuaryÕ
2.1.1.6.1.5. year Ôin 1976Õ
2.1.1.6.1.6. festivals Ôat ChristmasÕ
2.1.1.6.1.7. seasons Ôin springÕ
2.1.1.6.2. frequentative: is there a means
of indicating the frequentative expressions corresponding to 2.1.1.6.1.1-4
(e.g. Ôon MondaysÕ)?
2.1.1.6.3. punctual-future ÔIÕll be back in
two hoursÕ
2.1.1.6.4. punctual-past ÔI was here two hours agoÕ
2.1.1.6.5. duration ÔI lived there for two yearsÕ, ÔIÕve arrived for a weekÕ
2.1.1.6.6. anterior-duration-past Ônothing
happened
until MondayÕ
2.1.1.6.7. anterior-duration-future
Ônothing is going to happen until Monday
Ô
2.1.1.6.8. posterior-duration-past Ônothing
has happened
since MondayÕ
2.1.1.6.9. posterior-duration-future ÔIÕll
be here
after MondayÕ, ÔIÕll be here from Monday (on)Õ
2.1.1.6.10. anterior-general ÔIÕve been
here
previous to MondayÕ
2.1.1.6.11. posterior-general ÔIÕll be here subsequent to MondayÕ
2.1.1.6.12. point in period-past ÔlieÕs
been here
within the last 2 hoursÕ,
ÔIÕve had five calls in the last hourÕ, ÔIÕve had five calls in an hourÕ
2.1.1.6.13. point in period-future Ôbe back within (the next) two hoursÕ
Note any restrictions between the
occurrence of these temporal constructions and the tense/aspect of the verb.
All the questions in sections Z.1.1.4-6
should be answered with the following syntactic positions in mind:
a) as modifying (adverbial) element in a
normal clause/sentence
b) as the complement of a copular (not
cleft) construction c) as attributive element in a noun phrase.
If any of the categories above cannot occur
in any of these contexts, please note this.
2.1.1.7. Does the language display double
case-marking?
In other words, do nouns standing in a
particular attributive relationship to another (head) noun exhibit, in addition
to their own case-marking, case agreement with the head noun? If this is so,
describe:
2.1.1.7.1. under what circumstances it
occurs.
2.1.1.7.2. which combinations of cases are
possible.
2.1.1.7.3. whether it is optional or
obligatory to have the second case-marking.
2.1.1.7.4. any phonological variation
resulting from the juxtaposition of the two case-markers.
2.1.1.8.1. Does the language have a
number-marking system in nouns? If so, qualify this as e.g.
2.1.1.8.1.1. singular-plural
2.1.1.8.1.2. singular-dual-plural
2.1.1.8.1.3. singular-dual-trial-plural
2.1.1.8.1.4. singular-dual-paucal-plural
2.1.1.8.1.5. other - specify
Do different classes of nouns behave
differently in this respect (e.g. animate versus inanimate)?
2.1.1.8.2. Is the system of marking number
obligatory or optional? In situations where number-marking is not obligatory,
is there always some disambiguating factor present?
2.1.1.8.3. If the language has no system of
number-marking in the noun, does it have other means of indicating number, such
as the use of a word meaning ÔmanyÕ, etc.?
2.1.1.8.4. Is there a distinction between a
collective and a distributive plural or dual, etc.? Give details.
2.1.1.8.5. If collective nouns occur, is it
possible to form singulatives from these? Do these have noncollective plurals
in addition?
2.1.1.8.6. Describe in detail how the
number distinctions marked in the noun are realized, i.e. list the various
morphs (if identifiable) or changes, describing any phonological or
morphological conditioning involved, and indicating the degree of productivity
of the various processes.
2.1.1.8.7. Do foreign words retain their
native number marking or are they integrated? If they are integrated, how does
this proceed?
2.1.1.9. Are nouns divided into classes or
genders?
2.1.1.9.1. If this is so, list the classes together with their distinguishing affixes
or markers. Give examples of members of the various classes. Describe any
phonologically or morphologically conditioned variation in the class/gender markers and indicate the relative
productivity of the various formations.
2.1.1.9.2. If the answer to 2.1.1.9 is yes,
give a characterization, if possible, of the class-meaning of each class. If
this is not possible, indicate if there are any semantically associated groups
of nouns which belong overwhelmingly to individual classes.
2.1.1.9.3. If the various noun-classes are
not marked on the noun itself but on other elements of the sentence (e.g.
numerals, prepositions, verbs, etc.), describe the system in the same way as
requested in 2.1.1.9.1.
2.1.1.9.4. Does the language have
classifiers?
In other words does it possess a closed
class of nouns which function as the heads of noun phrases when enumeration is
involved? If so, list the various classifiers (supplying also their gloss as
normal nouns) and describe the semantic classes of nouns associated with each,
illustrating amply. Are the classifiers marked for any other semantic feature,
e.g. politeness, size?
2.1.1.9.5. Are loan-words from other
languages assigned to particular classes/genders on the basis of phonological or
semantic criteria, or a mixture of both? Illustrate.
2.1.1.10. Is definiteness marked in noun
phrases?
2.1.1.10.1. If so, describe how and where
it is marked (e.g. separate word, affix on noun, affix on classifier, etc.),
indicating if there is more than one method the conditions under which the
various methods are used.
2.1.1.10.2. Is the marking of definiteness
in the noun phrase optional or obligatory?
2.1.1.10.3. Does the form of the
definiteness marker vary according to the spatial relationship between the
entity concerned and participants in the speech act?
2.1.1.10.4. Is this optional or obligatory?
2.1.1.10.5. Is definiteness indicated with
2.1.1.10.5.1. proper names?
2.1.1.10.5.2. abstract nouns?
Distinguish here between normal use and
cases where two contrasting examples of the same noun are involved with
different qualifications.
2.1.1.10.6. If so, is this obligatory or
optionalÕ?
2.1.1.11. Is indefiniteness marked in noun
phrases?
2.1.1.11.1. If so, describe how it is
marked, indicating if there is more than one method the conditions under which
the various methods are used.
2.1.1.11.2. Is the marking of
indefiniteness in the noun phrase optional or obligatory?
2.1.1.11.3. Does the form of the
indefiniteness marker vary according to the spatial relationship between the
entity concerned and participants in the speech act?
2.1.1.11.4. Is this optional or obligatory?
2.1.1.11.5. Is indefiniteness indicated
with
2.1.1.11.5.1. nonsingular nouns?
2.1.1.11.5.2. mass nouns?
Distinguish here between the paradigm use
of mass nouns and their use as count nouns indicating ÔsortsÕ.
2.1.1.11.6. If so, is this obligatory or
optional?
2.1.1.12. Are referential and
nonreferential indefiniteness distinguished, e.g. Persian Hasan yek kita:b-ra:
xarid ÔHasan bought a specific
bookÕ, Hasan
yek kita:b xarid ÔHasan bought
some book or otherÕ?
2.1.1.12.1. If so, describe how the
distinction is marked, indicating if there is more than one method the
conditions under which the various methods are used.
2.1.1.12.2. Is the marking of
referentiality in the noun phrase optional or obligatory?
2.1.1.12.3. Is referentiality indicated
with
2.1.1.12.3.1. nonsingular nouns?
2.1.1.12.3.2. mass nouns?
Distinguish here between the paradigm use
of mass nouns and their use as count nouns indicating ÔsortsÕ.
2.1.1.12.4. If so, is this obligatory or
optional?
2.1.1.13. Is genericness marked in noun
phrases?
2.1.1.13.1. If so, describe how it is
marked, indicating if there is more than one method the conditions under which
the various methods are used.
2.1.1.13.2. Is the marking of genericness
in the noun phrase optional or obligatory?
2.1.1.14. Are more important noun actors
distinguished from less important (obviative) ones by any means? For example,
affixation of either or both kinds of nouns? Is the distinction more than
two-way?
2.1.1.14.1. If so, describe the affixation
or other means involved, giving full details of any variation in the markers.
2.1.1.14.2. Does this only apply with
animate (or pseudoanimate) nouns?
2.1.1.14.3. Does this system operate only
when two possible actors are involved in the same sentence, or in some other
unit, or are all animate nouns defined as more important and less important?
2.1.1.14.4. Is the system described
optional or obligatory?
2.1.2. Pronouns
2.1.2.1. Personal pronouns
2.1.2.1.1. Do free pronouns occur in the
language? Answer questions in 2.1.2.1.1 with respect to: subject, direct
object, indirect object, other positions.
2.1.2.1.1.1. Are free pronouns obligatory
in all circumstances in
2.1.2.1.1.1.1. the first
person?
2.1.2.1.1.1.2. the second
person?
2.1.2.1.1.1.3. the third
person?
2.1.2.1.1.2. Are free pronouns optional in
all circumstances in
2.1.2.1.1.2.1. the first
person?
2.1.2.1.1.2.2. the second
person?
2.1.2.1.1.2.3. the third
person?
2.1.2.1.1.3. Do free pronouns occur
2.1.2.1.1.3.1. in
noncontrastive nonemphatic contexts in general?
2.1.2.1.1.3.2. in contexts
where the referent(s) of the pronoun is/are emphasized?
2.1.2.1.1.3.3. in unemphatic
contexts with imperative verbs?
2.1.2.1.1.3.4. in contexts with
imperative verbs where the referent(s) of the pronoun is/are emphasized?
2.1.2.1.1.3.5. in answer to
questions of the type Ôwho is that?Õ, i.e. Ô(it is) IÕ?
2.1.2.1.1.3.6. in cleft or
pseudocleft constructions?
2.1.2.1.1.3.7. If the
conditions of occurrence of free pronouns do not correspond with any of the
above, state them in as much detail as possible.
2.1.2.1.1.4. If free pronouns occur in both
emphatic and unemphatic contexts, is there a difference in either segmental
(i.e. reduced versus unreduced) or suprasegmental (accented versus unaccented,
tone variation, long vowel versus short vowel, etc.) structure?
2.1.2.1.1.5. Are reduced pronouns
restricted to particular positions in the sentence structure? If so, give
details.
2.1.2.1.2. What person distinctions are
made in the pronouns?
2.1.2.1.2.1. 1st v. 2nd v. 3rd person
2.1.2.1.2.2. 1st v. nonfirst person
2.1.2.1.2.3. other - give details.
2.1.2.1.3. Does the language distinguish
inclusion v. exclusion of the second person in the first person (Ôwe including
youÕ v. Ôwe excluding youÕ), or inclusion v. exclusion of the third person in
the first or second person (Ôwe including themÕ, Ôwe excluding themÕ, Ôyou
including themÕ, Ôyou excluding themÕ)? If so, describe for each whether we
have
2.1.2.1.3.1. inclusive v. exclusive
2.1.2.1.3.2. inclusive only
2.1.2.1.3.3. exclusive only
2.1.2.1.3.4. inclusive v. exclusive &
general
2.1.2.1.3.5. inclusive & general
2.1.2.1.3.6. exclusive & general
2.1.2.1.3.7. general only
2.1.2.1.4. Are pronouns marked for number?
2.1.2.1.4.1. Which of the following sets of
distinctions occurs?
2.1.2.1.4.1.1. singular-plural
2.1.2.1.4.1.2. singular-dual-plural
2.1.2.1.4.1.3.
singular-dual-trial-plural
2.1.2.1.4.1.4.
singular-dual-trial-quadral-plural
2.1.2.1.4.1.5.
singular-paucal-plural
2.1.2.1.4.1.6.
singular-dual-paucal-plural
2.1.2.1.4.1.7. other - give
details
2.1.2.1.4.2. Is the marking of any
particular number distinction optional in any instance? If a particular
distinction is not made which other subcategory takes over?
2.1.2.1.4.3. Is there overlapping reference
between any of the subcategories? For example, in some languages with a dual and
plural, the plural may also be used where two objects or persons are concerned,
as well as the dual. In other languages with a dual and plural, the plural has
only the meaning of Ôthree or moreÕ. Define in any case the reference of the
plural subcategory in pronouns. Describe any features that determine the choice
between the overlapping terms.
2.1.2.1.4.4. In some languages we have
another kind of overlapping reference, where more than one term has unbounded
reference, e.g. X = ÔoneÕ, Y = Ôtwo or moreÕ, Z = Ôthree or moreÕ. Does this
exist? If so, describe any factors that determine the choice of the overlapping
terms.
2.1.2.1.4.5. If the language has a paucal
what is the exact range of this?
2.1.2.1.4.6. Can pronouns be associated in
noun phrases with numerals, e.g. Ôwe two (men)Õ? Are such formations distinct
from true duals, trials etc. in any way? Is there any obvious limit on the
association of pronouns and numerals, e.g. Ôwe threeÕ, Ôwe hundred thousandÕ
where the second might not be possible in some languages?
2.1.2.1.4.7. Is there a distinction between
collective and distributive plurals, duals, etc.?
2.1.2.1.4.8. Is there a distinction between
different types of nonsingular such that one indicates that the referents
include all the possible referents (however defined), whereas the other
indicates that only a subset of the possible referents is involved?
2.1.2.1.5.1. Does the language mark the
different status of various 3rd person actors referred to by pronouns as more
important versus less important (obviative/4th person)? Is this compulsory?
2.1.2.1.5.2. Do further degrees of
obviation exist in pronouns (5th person, etc.)?
2.1.2.1.6. Are different degrees of
proximity to the participants in the speech act marked in third person
pronouns? If so, is this optional or obligatory?
2.1.2.1.6.1. Which distinctions are made?
2.1.2.1.7. Are there special anaphoric
third person pronouns?
2.1.2.1.7.1. Do clashes between natural
gender and grammatical gender arise with pronouns used anaphorically? How are
these resolved?
2.1.2.1.8. Are there gender/class distinctions in pronouns? If so,
describe
2.1.2.1.8.1. In contradistinction to the
gender of the referent, is the sex of the speaker or hearer distinguished? If
so, describe.
2.1.2.1.9. Are there special pronominal
forms indicating the tribal, sectional, or family relationships of the
referents? If so, describe.
2.1.2.1.9.1. Are there special pronominal
forms indicating the tribal, sectional, or family relationships of the speaker
or hearer to the referents? If so, describe.
2.1.2.1.10. List all the forms arising from
the intersection of the above-mentioned categories - person, inclusion, number,
obviation, proximity, anaphoricity, gender/class, kinship/tribal affiliation - in the unmarked case
and most neutral status form (if case or status is marked in the pronouns of
the language). If the gender/class distinctions are very numerous, and
the various forms reflecting these distinctions are regularly formed by some
process or other, it is not necessary to give all the gender/class variants provided their formation is
explicated. Give details of any variant or reduced forms.
2.1.2.1.11. Does the pronoun agree with the
verb in tense? Give full details of any tense-marking in the pronouns. Do the
same for any other verbal category marked in the pronoun.
2.1.2.1.12. Does the language mark status
distinctions in the pronoun, e.g. familiar, honorific, etc.? Describe all
nonneutral forms here, giving an indication of the degree of status of the
relevant participants (speaker, hearer, or third person), or of the
circumstances of use involved.
2.1.2.1.12.1. If in certain circumstances
the use of titles or other nouns is preferred, describe the conditions under
which this is so, and
2.1.2.1.12.1.1. give a complete
list of the forms if only a small closed class is involved
2.1.2.1.12.1.2. if a large
number of terms is involved, state whether an open or closed class is involved,
describe any subclasses of significance, and give examples
2.1.2.1.12.2. Indicate if forms from the
neutral system acquire a different reference as status forms. List these cases.
2.1.2.1.12.3. If the system of person/inclusion/number/obviation/proximity/anaphoricity/gender/class/kinship/tribal affiliation distinctions made among
the status forms is different from those made in the neutral system, describe
the differences.
2.1.2.1.13.1. Are there special nonspecific
indefinite pronouns (e.g. English one,
French on)? If so, give the forms, explaining any
differences in their usage.
2.1.2.1.13.2. Are any forms from the
personal system used also as nonspecific indefinite pronouns (cf. English you)?
2.1.2.1.13.3. Do any nouns have the
function of nonspecific indefinite pronouns? Which?
2.1.2.1.14. Describe any system of specific
indefinite pronouns (e.g. English someone).
2.1.2.1.15. Are there special emphatic
pronouns?
2.1.2.1.15.1. If so, are there any
distinctions made in degrees of emphasis? Describe these.
2.1.2.1.15.2. If the various emphatic forms
are derived according to some regular process, describe this, giving examples;
otherwise list all the forms. If different distinctions are made among the
emphatic pronouns from those made among the normal pronouns list all the forms
in any case.
2.1.2.1.15.3. Are there selective emphatic
pronouns? I.e. pronouns with the meanings Ôwe, but especially IÕ, Ôyou, but
especially thouÕ, Ôthey, but especially he/sheÕ. If so, describe the system in detail.
2.1.2.1.16. Do complex pronouns occur
giving a combination of different types of reference (e.g. both subject and
object reference)? If so, give all the possible forms and their meanings.
2.1.2.1.17. Are constructions of the type
pronoun-noun possible where both elements have the same reference, e.g. we
firemen... . If so, is this possible with all pronouns or only with some. List
those forms for which it is impossible.
2.1.2.1.18. Do constructions of the general
type Ôwe (and) the priestÕ occur with the meaning ÔI and the priestÕ? If this
phenomenon occurs in various numbers, dual, trial, etc., describe the meanings
of the various types of combination.
2.1.2.1.18.1. Does this phenomenon also
occur with pairs of pronouns, e.g. do constructions of the type Ôwe (and) thouÕ
occur with the meaning ÔI and youÕ? If so, illustrate, describing any
phonological changes occurring in the form of the pronouns. If there is a
coordinating element present is this the normal coordinator for noun phrases?
2.1.2.1.19. Some languages have a sort of secondary
pronoun system available, by which it is possible to specify in greater detail
the precise composition of various nonsingular combinations of persons. In this
system the different forms are constructed out of:
2.1.2.1.19.1. combinations of free pronouns
(other than those produced by the ordinary means of coordination)
2.1.2.1.19.2. a free pronoun affixed with
various pronominal affixes
2.1.2.1.19.3. other means.
If the language has such a system, describe
the principles of its construction and list the various forms that occur,
together with their meanings.
2.1.2.1.20. Is there a case system in
pronouns?
2.1.2.1.20.1. If so, describe fully any
deviations from that occurring with nouns, e.g.:
2.1.2.1.20.1.1. additional
cases and their functions
2.1.2.1.20.1.2. absent cases
2.1.2.1.20.1.3. different uses
of the cases
2.1.2.1.20.1.4. different
markers for the cases
2.1.2.1.20.1.5. irregular forms
of cases (give full details here, with paradigms if necessary)
2.1.2.2. Reflexive pronouns
2.1.2.2.1. Does the language have special
reflexive pronouns, or common nouns used as reflexives?
2.1.2.2.2. If so, do these distinguish the
following subcategories?
2.1.2.2.2.1. person
2.1.2.2.2.2. inclusion
2.1.2.2.2.3. number
2.1.2.2.2.4. obviation
2.1.2.2.2.5. proximity
2.1.2.2.2.6. anaphoricity
2.1.2.2.2.7. gender/class
2.1.2.2.2.8. kinship/tribal affiliation
2.1.2.2.2.9. status (for these see further
2.1.2.1)
2.1.2.2.3. Give all the forms resulting
from the (intersection of the) above subcategories, unless the reflexive
pronoun is derived from the personal pronoun by some regular process, in which
case it is sufficient to describe the process and illustrate it amply. If there
is just one reflexive, give it.
2.1.2.2.4. Are reflexive pronouns marked
for case?
2.1.2.2.4.1. Is the means of expressing
case in the reflexive the same as that used in the pronoun?
2.1.2.2.4.2. Describe any differences in
detail.
2.1.2.2.5. If there is no reflexive
pronoun, how is reflexivity expressed?
2.1.2.2.6. If there is a reflexive pronoun,
are there also other ways of expressing reflexivity? Specify.
2.1.2.2.7. Does the reflexive pronoun have
other uses? Specify.
2.1.2.3. Reciprocal pronouns
2.1.2.3.1. Does the language have special
reciprocal pronouns, or common nouns used as reciprocals?
2.1.2.3.2. If so, do these distinguish the
following subcategories?
2.1.2.3.2.1. person
2.1.2.3.2.2. inclusion
2.1.2.3.2.3. number
2.1.2.3.2.4. obviation
2.1.2.3.2.5. proximity
2.1.2.3.2.6. anaphoricity
2.1.2.3.2.7. gender/class
2.1.2.3.2.8. kinship/tribal affiliation
2.1.2.3.2.9. status (for these see further
2.1.2.1)
2.1.2.3.3. Give all the forms resulting
from the (intersection of the) above subcategories, unless the reciprocal
pronoun is derived from the personal pronoun by some regular process, in which
case it is sufficient to describe the process and illustrate it amply. If there
is just one reciprocal pronoun, give it.
2.1.2.3.4. Are reciprocal pronouns marked
for case?
2.1.2.3.4.1. Is the means of expressing
case in the reciprocal the same as in the noun?
2.1.2.3.4.2. Describe any differences in
detail.
2.1.2.3.5. If there is no reciprocal
pronoun, how is reciprocality expressed?
2.1.2.3.6. If there is a reciprocal
pronoun, are there also other ways of expressing reciprocality?
2.1.2.3.7. Does the reciprocal pronoun have
other uses? Specify.
2.1.2.4. Possessive pronouns
2.1.2.4.1. Does the language have special
possessive pronouns?
2.1.2.4.2. Is there a distinction made
between the following types of possession?
2.1.2.4.2.1. alienable/inalienable or subtypes of these
2.1.2.4.2.2. temporary/permanent
2.1.2.4.2.3. persons/animals/things
2.1.2.4.2.4. present/past
2.1.2.4.2.5. other
How are these distinctions marked?
2.1.2.4.3. Give a list of all the possessive
pronouns of all the above types, unless they are derived by a regular process
from the personal pronouns, in which case describe this process and illustrate
amply.
2.1.2.4.4. Are possessive pronouns marked
for case?
2.1.2.4.4.1. If so, is the means of expressing
case in the possessive pronoun the same as in the noun?
2.1.2.4.4.2. Describe any differences in
detail.
2.1.2.4.5. If there is no possessive
pronoun, how is possession expressed with pronouns?
2.1.2.4.6. If there is a possessive
pronoun, are there alternative ways of expressing possession with pronouns?
2.1.2.4.7. Does the language have reflexive
possessive pronouns?
2.1.2.4.7.1. If so, describe them fully.
2.1.2.4.8. Does the language have
reciprocal possessive pronouns?
2.1.2.4.8.1. If so, describe them fully.
2.1.2.4.9. Does the language have emphatic
possessive pronouns?
2.1.2.4.9.1. If so, describe them fully.
2.1.2.4.10. Are there other types of
possessive pronouns?
2.1.2.4.10.1. If so, describe them fully.
2.1.2.4.11. Can the above forms be used
adjectivally (i.e. as a modifier of a nominal construction)?
2.1.2.4.11.1. Are there separate adjectival
forms? If so, describe.
2.1.2.5. Demonstrative pronouns
2.1.2.5.1. Which of the following
parameters are involved in the demonstrative pronouns of the language?
2.1.2.5.1.1. relative distance from the
speaker; specify the number of degrees of distance, and their approximate
reference (e.g. near, middle distance, far)
2.1.2.5.1.2. relative distance from the
hearer; specify the number of degrees of distance, and their approximate
reference
2.1.2.5.1.3. relative distance from speaker
and hearer; specify the number of degrees of distance, and their approximate
reference
2.1.2.5.1.4. equidistance from speaker and
hearer
2.1.2.5.1.5. contact with the speaker
2.1.2.5.1.6. contact with the hearer
2.1.2.5.1.7. behind speaker
2.1.2.5.1.8. behind hearer
2.1.2.5.1.9. between speaker and hearer
2.1.2.5.1.10. on other side of hearer from
speaker
2.1.2.5.1.11. on other side of speaker from
hearer
2.1.2.5.1.12. equidistant from the speaker
and some object
2.1.2.5.1.13. equidistant from the hearer
and some object
2.1.2.5.1.14. on other side of some object
from speaker
2.1.2.5.1.15. on other side of some object
from hearer
2.1.2.5.1.16. inside some object
2.1.2.5.1.17. outside some object
2.1.2.5.1.18. near some object
2.1.2.5.1.19. vertical orientation with
respect to the speaker; specify the number of degrees of height, and their
approximate reference (e.g. higher, level, lower)
2.1.2.5.1.20. other spatial relationship
with speaker, hearer, or other reference point; specify
2.1.2.5.1.21. visible/invisible
2.1.2.5.1.21.1. to the speaker
2.1.2.5.1.21.2. to the hearer
2.1.2.5.1.21.3. to both speaker
and hearer
2.1.2.5.1.21.4. to some other
person
2.1.2.5.1.22. known/unknown
2.1.2.5.1.22.1. to the speaker
2.1.2.5.1.22.2. to the hearer
2.1.2.5.1.22.3. to both speaker
and hearer
2.1.2.5.1.22.4. to some other
person
2.1.2.5.1.23. referred to in previous
discourse
2.1.2.5.1.23.1. neutral
2.1.2.5.2.23.2. relative lapse
of time, e.g. recently v. longer ago
2.1.2.5.1.24. time dimension; specify the
number of degrees of relative time, and their approximate reference (e.g.
future, present, past)
2.1.2.5.1.25. other parameters - specify
2.1.2.5.1.26. Is there a neutral demonstrative
pronoun as distinct from a third person pronoun? If this is not the only
demonstrative in the language, under what circumstances is it used?
2.1.2.5.2. Describe the various
demonstrative pronouns resulting from the employment of the above parameters
and their combinations, and give their meanings.
Since many demonstrative pronouns with
basically spatial reference will have various derived meanings (e.g. the
pronoun meaning Ôfar from the speakerÕ may in some languages receive the
derived meaning Ôout of sightÕ, etc.), it is desirable to give as full detail
as possible on such usages. Try and distinguish between primary and secondary
usages, if possible. If it is the case that many combinations of the above
parameters are possible and that these involve series of affixes corresponding
with particular parameters affixed to a few basic stems, it is sufficient
(assuming the processes involved are regular) to describe the means of
formation of these complex pronouns, giving ample illustration, and stating
which combinations of the various parameters are possible.
2.1.2.5.3. Are there demonstrative pronouns
part of whose phonological structure may vary iconically in proportion to the
degree of distance involved? Is this a continuum, or is there a fixed number of
discrete distinctions involved?
2.1.2.5.4. Are demonstrative pronouns
marked for number?
2.1.2.5.4.1. Is the means of expressing
number in the demonstrative the same as that used with the noun?
2.1.2.5.4.2. Describe any differences in
full detail.
2.1.2.5.5. Are demonstrative pronouns
marked for class/gender?
2.1.2.5.5.1. Is the means of expressing
class/gender in the demonstrative the same as
that used in the noun?
2.1.2.5.5.2. Describe any differences in
full detail.
2.1.2.5.6. Are demonstrative pronouns
marked for case?
2.1.2.5.6.1. Is the means of expressing
case in the demonstrative the same as that used in the noun?
2.1.2.5.6.2. Describe any differences in
detail.
2.1.2.5.7. Are any other grammatical
categories marked in the demonstrative?
2.1.2.5.7.1. If so, describe fully.
2.1.2.5.8. Can the above demonstrative
pronouns all also be used adjectivally (attributively) or/and are there special adjectival forms?
2.1.2.5.8.1. If so, describe fully all
differences between the pronominal and adjectival forms.
2.1.2.6. Interrogative pronouns and other
question words
2.1.2.6.1. Does the language have
interrogative pronouns?
2.1.2.6.1.1. If so, which of the following
types does it have? List the forms.
2.1.2.6.1.1.1. general
2.1.2.6.1.1.2. selective (from
a group)
2.1.2.6.1.1.3. other types -
specify
Here follow
2.1.2.6.1.2 (parallel to 2.1.2.5.4) through
2.1.2.6.1.6.1 (parallel to 2.1.2.5.8.1 ).
2.1.2.6.2. List all other question words
and their meanings. Specify whether different forms are used in direct and
indirect questions.
2.1.2.7. Relative pronouns and other
relative words
2.1.2.7.1. Does the language have special
relative pronouns?
2.1.2.7.1.1. If so, which of the following
types does it have? List the forms.
2.1.2.7.1.1.1. restrictive
2.1.2.7.1.1.2. nonrestrictive
2.1.2.7.1.1.3. other types -
specify
Here follow
2.1.2.7.1.2 (parallel to 2.1.2.5.4) through
2.1.2.7.1.6.1 (parallel to 2.1.2.5.8.1).
2.1.2.7.2. List all other relative words
and their meanings.
2.1.2.7.3. Do the words for ÔplaceÕ and
ÔtimeÕ take relative pronouns, or relative words corresponding to ÔwhereÕ and
ÔwhenÕ?
2.1.3. Verb morphology
2.1.3.1. Voice
2.1.3.1.1. Passive
2.1.3.1.1.1. Personal passive: Which of the
following passive constructions exist, and how are they formed (here and
throughout section 2.1.3.1, indicate both changes in the morphology of the verb
and in the syntactic expression of the noun phrase arguments of the verb):
2.1.3.1.1.1.1. The direct
object of the active appears as subject of the passive.
2.1.3.1.1.1.2. The indirect
object of the active appears as subject of the passive.
2.1.3.1.1.1.3. Some other
constituent of the active appears as subject of the passive.
2.1.3.1.1.2. Impersonal passive: Are there
passive constructions where no constituent appears in subject position? If so,
can these be formed, and how, from verbs which in the active have
2.1.3.1.1.2.1. a direct object?
2.1.3.1.1.2.2. an indirect
object?
2.1.3.1.1.2.3. some other
object?
2.1.3.1.1.2.4. no object?
2.1.3.1.1.3. For each of the above types,
indicate whether it is possible for the subject of the active to be expressed
in the passive construction, and if so, how. Are there different forms
depending on whether or not the subject of the active is agentive?
2.1.3.1.1.4.1. Does the passive
have the same tenses and aspects as the active? Specify any differences fully.
2.1.3.1.1.4.2. Is there a
distinction between dynamic and static passive (e.g. the house is being built versus the house is (already) built)? Specify.
2.1.3.1.2. Means of decreasing the valency
(number of arguments) of a verb: Does the language have means, other than the
passive, of decreasing the valency of a verb, and if so, how? (Note in
particular any similarities to passives.)
2.1.3.1.2.1. formation of an intransitive
verb from a transitive verb by not specifying the subject of the transitive
(e.g. the
water is boiling from John is boiling the
water)
2.1.3.1.2.2. formation of an intransitive
verb from a transitive verb by not specifying the direct object (e.g. John is eating from John is eating fish )
2.1.3.1.2.3. formation of a reciprocal
intransitive verb by expressing both subject and direct object of the
transitive as subject (e.g. John and Bill are fighting from John is fighting Bill)
2.1.3.1.2.4. other means of decreasing the
valency of a verb
2.1.3.1.3. Means of increasing the valency
of a verb: Does the language have means of increasing the valency of a verb,
and if so, how? (One widespread pattern of valency-increasing is the relation
between noncausative and causative.)
2.1.3.1.3.1.1. How is an
intransitive verb made causative?
2.1.3.1.3.1.2. How is a
transitive verb made causative?
2.1.3.1.3.1.3. How is a
ditransitive verb (i.e. a verb with both direct and indirect object) made
causative?
2.1.3.1.3.2. Is there any formal difference
depending on the agentivity or otherwise of the causee?
2.1.3.1.3.3. Is it possible for the causee
to be omitted? If so, can this lead to ambiguity (e.g. French j Ôai
fait manger les cochons (i) ÔI
have made the pigs eatÕ, (ii) ÔI have made someone eat the pigsÕ).
2.1.3.1.4. Are there special reflexive or
reciprocal verb forms? Do these have any other uses? If so, describe.
2.1.3.2. Tense
Tense and aspect should be carefully
distinguished in 2.1.3.2 and 2.1.3.3, though note should be made of forms that
combine tense and aspect (e.g. the imperfect as combination of past tense and
imperfective aspect), or that have both tense and aspect values (e.g. the
pluperfect as past-in-the-past or perfect-iii-the-past); similarly, some forms
may have both tense and mood values.
Distinguish absolute and relative tense.
Absolute tenses involve a time specification relative to the present moment;
relative tenses involve a time specification relative to some other specified
point in time.
Indicate for each case whether tense
specification is obligatory or optional.
2.1.3.2.1. Which of the following tenses
are distinguished formally, and how?
2.1.3.2.1.1. universal (i.e. characteristic
of all time, past, present, and future)
2.1.3.2.1.2. present
2.1.3.2.1.3. past
2.1.3.2.1.3.1. Is past further
subdivided according to degree of remoteness?
2.1.3.2.1.3.2. Are there also
relative tenses, relative to a point in the past, i.e. pluperfect
(past-in-the-past), future-in-the-past?
2.1.3.2.1.4. future
2.1.3.2.1.4.1. Does this form
also have modal and/or aspectual values?
2.1.3.2.1.4.2. Is future
further subdivided according to degree of remoteness?
2.1.3.2.1.4.3. Are there also
relative tenses, relative to a point in the future, i.e. future perfect
(past-in-the-future), future-in-the-future?
2.1.3.2.2. Do the same tense distinctions
obtain in all moods and nonfinite forms? If not, indicate the differences.
2.1.3.2.3. To what extent are the tenses
absolute, and to what extent relative? Answer with respect to each of the
following criteria:
2.1.3.2.3.1. mood
2.1.3.2.3.2. finiteness
2.1.3.2.3.3: main versus subordinate clause
2.1.3.3. Aspect
2.1.3.3.1. Perfect aspect
2.1.3.3.1.1. Is there a separate perfect
aspect, i.e. distinct forms for indicating a past situation (event, process,
state, act) that has present relevance? If so, how is it formed?
2.1.3.3.1.2. Which tenses does this form
exist in (e.g. English present perfect I have seen, pluperfect (past perfect, perfect-in-the-past) I had seen, future perfect (perfect-in-the-future) I shall have seen )?
2.1.3.3.1.3. If there is a perfect aspect,
which of the following can it indicate? Do any of the following have separate
forms?
2.1.3.3.1.3.1. present result
of a past situation
2.1.3.3.1.3.2. a situation that
has held at least once in the period leading up to the present (e.g. have you ever been to London ?)
2.1.3.3.1.3.3. a situation that
began in the past and is still continuing (e.g. I have been waiting for an hour already)
2.1.3.3.1.3.4. any others (e.g.
a situation completed a short time ago, a situation that will shortly be
completed, etc.)
2.1.3.3.1.4. Are there similarities between
the expression of perfect aspect and recent past tense?
2.1.3.3.2. Aspect as different ways of
viewing the duration of a situation
2.1.3.3.2.1. Which of the following, if
any, are marked formally, either (a) regularly for all verbs where applicable,
(b) only for certain lexical items?
2.1.3.3.2.1.1. perfective
(aoristic) aspect (a situation viewed in its totality, without distinguishing
beginning, middle, and end)
2.1.3.3.2.1.2. imperfective
aspect (a situation viewed with respect to its internal constituency)
2.1.3.3.2.1.3. habitual aspect
(a situation characteristic of a considerable stretch of time, e.g. English I used to play chess)
2.1.3.3.2.1.4. continuous
aspect (nonhabitual imperfective aspect)
2.1.3.3.2.1.5. progressive
aspect (continuous aspect of a nonstative (dynamic) verb)
2.1.3.3.2.1.6. ingressive
aspect (beginning of a situation)
2.1.3.3.2.1.7. terminative
aspect (end of a situation)
2.1.3.3.2.1.7.1. Is there a
special form indicating the completion of another situation prior to the
situation being described?
2.1.3.3.2.1.8. iterative aspect
(repetition of a situation; note that habitual aspect (2.1.3.3.2.1.3) need not
be iterative, e.g. the capital of Russia used to be St. Petersburg)
2.1.3.3.2.1.9. semelfactive
aspect (a single occurrence of a situation)
2.1.3.3.2.1.10. punctual aspect
(a situation that is viewed as not being able to be analyzed temporally, e.g.
he coughed, referring to a single cough; contrast
perfective aspect, where the situation is not analyzed, although there is no
specification that it could not be)
2.1.3.3.2.1.11. durative aspect
(a situation that is viewed as necessarily lasting in time)
2.1.3.3.2.1.12. simultaneous
aspect (simultaneity with some other situation)
2.1.3.3.2.1.13. other aspects
2.1.3.3.2.1.14. Is there any
way of indicating overtly a situation that leads to a logical conclusion
(telic, accomplishment), as opposed to one that does not?
Thus English drink a gallon of water is telic (the action must come to an end
when the gallon of water is consumed, and may not come to an end before then),
and drink some water
atelic (it can continue indefinitely, or stop at any time), although English makes
no overt distinction here. Is there a way of indicating that the logical
conclusion of a telic situation has been reached?
2.1.3.3.2.2.1. What
possibilities are there for combining different aspectual values?
2.1.3.3.2.2.2. Are there any
restrictions on the combination of different aspectual values with the various
2.1.3.3.2.2.2.1. voices?
2.1.3.3.2.2.2.2. tenses?
2.1.3.3.2.2.2.3. moods?
2.1.3.3.2.2.2.4. finite and
nonfinite forms?
2.1.3.4. Mood
Which of the following exist as distinct
morphological categories, and how are they marked?
2.1.3.4.1. indicative (this will exist as a
separate form only in contrast to one or more other moods)
2.1.3.4.2. conditional
2.1.3.4.3. imperative
2.1.3.4.3.1. In which persons and numbers
does the imperative have special forms?
2.1.3.4.4. optative (expression of a wish
for something to come about)
2.1.3.4.5. intentional (intention to bring
about some situation)
2.1.3.4.6. debitive (obligation to do
something)
2.1.3.4.6.1. Is any distinction made
between moral and physical obligation?
2.1.3.4.6.2. Is there any expression of
different degrees of obligation?
2.1.3.4.7. potential (ability to do
something)
2.1.3.4.7.1. Is there any distinction
between physical ability and permission?
2.1.3.4.7.2. Is there a separate form for learned
ability?
2.1.3.4.8. degree of certainty: are there
ways in which the speaker can indicate the degree of certainty with which he
makes an assertion (e.g. English he must be there, he is there, he may be there)?
2.1.3.4.9. authority for assertion: are
there ways in which the speaker can indicate his authority for making an
assertion, e.g. personal witnessing of situation, reliable secondhand
information, unreliable secondhand information?
2.1.3.4.10. hortatory (encouraging)
2.1.3.4.11. monitory (warning)
2.1.3.4.12. narrative
2.1.3.4.13. consecutive (the situation
being described follows on from some previously mentioned situation)
2.1.3.4.14. contingent (it is possible
that...)
2.1.3.4.15. others - specify
2.1.3.5. Finite and nonfinite forms
Does the language distinguish finite and
nonfinite verbal forms? List the forms and their uses, and indicate which forms
have overt expression of the various:
2.1.3.5.1. voices
2.1.3.5.2. tenses
2.1.3.5.3. aspects
2.1.3.5.4. moods
2.1.3.6. Person/number/etc. (cf. 2.1.2.1 )
2.1.3.6.1. Which of the following (a) must
be (b) may be coded in the verb?
2.1.3.6.1.1. subject
2.1.3.6.1.2. direct object
2.1.3.6.1.3. indirect object
2.1.3.6.1.4. benefactive
2.1.3.6.1.5. other - specify
2.1.3.6.2. For each of 2.1.3.6.1.1-5, how
is agreement marked?
2.1.3.6.2.1. marker on verb - give these in
detail
2.1.3.6.2.2. pronoun (a) clitic (b)
nonclitic
2.1.3.6.2.3. other - describe processes
involved
2.1.3.6.3. If only certain members of each
class 2.1.3.6.1.1-5 are coded in the verb, what are the conditioning factors,
and how do they operate?
2.1.3.6.3.1. word order
2.1.3.6.3.2. topic/comment structure
2.1.3.6.3.3. definiteness of noun phrase
2.1.3.6.3.4. animacy of noun phrase
2.1.3.6.3.5. deletion (nonoccurrence) of noun
phrase
2.1.3.6.3.6. other - specify
2.1.3.6.4. What features of the noun phrase
are coded in the verb? Refer to the list of features for pronouns (2.1.2.1.2
ff.) and nouns (2.1.1.10 ff.).
2.1.3.6.5. How is coding affected by
2.1.3.6.5.1. discrepancy between syntactic
and semantic features?
2.1.3.6.5.2. coordination of noun phrases
of different agreement classes?
2.1.3.6.6. Is agreement the same for all
2.1.3.6.6.1. voices?
2.1.3.6.6.2. tenses?
2.1.3.6.6.3. aspects?
2.1.3.6.6.4. moods?
2.1.3.6.6.5. finite and nonfinite forms?
Describe any differences.
2.1.3.6.7. Is identity or nonidentity
between the subject of a verb and the subject of the following or preceding
verb indicated? How?
2.1.3.6.7.1. With what degree of
specificity (e.g. for person, number, etc.) is such agreement?
2.1.3.6.8. Are there special reflexive
forms of the verb? If so, describe the formation of these forms in detail.
2.1.3.6.9. Are there special reciprocal
forms of the verb? If so, describe the formation of these forms in detail.
2.1.3.6.10. Is there any distinction made
between actions
2.1.3.6.10.1. towards the speaker?
2.1.3.6.10.2. away from the speaker?
2.1.3.6.10.3. towards the hearer?
2.1.3.6.10.4. away from the hearer?
2.1.3.6.10.5. towards a third person?
2.1.3.6.10.6. away from a third person?
2.1.3.6.10.7. other kinds of directionals?
2.1.3.6.11. Is a distinction made between
different modes of body orientation, e.g. standing up, sitting down, with
hands?
2.1.3.6.12.1. Does incorporation of the
following elements take place? optionally/obligatorily
2.1.3.6.12.1.1. transitive noun
subject
2.1.3.6.12.1.2. intransitive
noun subject
2.1.3.6.12.1.3. noun direct
object
2.1.3.6.12.1.4. noun indirect
object
2.1.3.6.12.1.5. other nominal
elements
2.1.3.6.12.1.6. adjectives; if
so, referring to which argument?
2.1.3.6.12.1.7. adverbs; if so,
which kinds?
2.1.3.6.12.1.8. pre-/postpositions
2.1.3.6.12.1.9. other elements
- specify
2.1.3.6.12.2. For each of the above,
describe the incorporation process, describing any changes that take place in
the incorporated elements, any categories that are neutralized, and listing all
irregular (suppletive or otherwise) incorporation forms.
2.1.3.7. If strings of verbs occur together
in any construction, is there any change or loss of any features normally
marked on the verb? Are any elements interposed?
2.1.4. Adjectives
If the language has subclasses of
adjectives that behave differently according to the various criteria below,
please specify the subclasses, with any semantic or other correlates, and answer
separately for each subclass; thus with verbal adjectives and nominal
adjectives in Japanese. Similarly if there are individual adjectives or groups
of adjectives that behave aberrantly.
2.1.4.1. Is any distinction made between
predicative and attributive forms of adjectives? If so, specify.
2.1.4.2. Is there any distinction between
absolute (permanent, normal) and contingent (temporary, abnormal) state? If so,
how is this distinction expressed?
2.1.4.3.1. Do (a) attributive (b)
predicative adjectives agree with nouns in terms of the following categories,
and if so, how?
2.1.4.3.1.1. number
2.1.4.3.1.2. person
2.1.4.3.1.3. gender/class
2.1.4.3.1.4. case
2.1.4.3.1.5. definiteness/indefiniteness
2.1.4.3.1.6. other - specify
2.1.4.3.2. Does agreement depend on
2.1.4.3.2.1. relative position of noun and
adjective?
2.1.4.3.2.2. whether or not the noun is
overtly expressed?
2.1.4.3.3. How is agreement affected by
2.1.4.3.3.1. conflict between grammatical
and semantic category values?
2.1.4.3.3.2. agreement with coordinated
nouns some of which belong to different classes?
2.1.4.4. How are the various kinds of
comparison expressed?
2.1.4.4.1. equality (e.g. as tall as John)
2.1.4.4.2. comparative (e.g. taller than John)
2.1.4.4.3. superlative
2.1.4.4.3.1. compared to other entities
(e.g. this
river is the widest, i.e.
wider than any other river)
2.1.4.4.3.2. compared to itself at other
points/times (e.g. this river is widest here, i.e. compared to the same river at other
points)
2.1.4.4.3.4. others - specify
2.1.4.5. How are various degrees of a
quality expressed?
2.1.4.5.1. in large measure (e.g. very tall)
2.1.4.5.2. in superabundance (e.g. too tall)
2.1.4.5.3. in small measure (e.g. rather tall)
2.1.4.5.4. others - specify
2.1.4.6. With predicative adjectives, are
the categories that characterize the verbal morphology of the language
2.1.4.6.1. expressed in the adjective
morphology? If so, how?
2.1.4.6.2. expressed by means of a copular
verb?
2.1.5. Prepositions/postpositions
2.1.5.1. Give all pre-/postpositions or pre-/postpositional usages not mentioned in
2.1.1 and list these exhaustively together with their grammatical effects.
2.1.5.2. Do prepositions agree for any
grammatical category with the nouns they govern?
2.1.5.2.1. If so, describe the system
fully.
2.1.5.3. Do prepositions combine with the
personal pronouns they govern to form series of personal forms? If so, describe
all regularities and irregularities of the system.
2.1.5.4. Do prepositions combine with the
articles of the noun phrases they govern to form prepositional articles? If so,
describe all regularities and irregularities of the system.
2.1.6. Numerals/quantifiers
2.1.6.1. List the forms of the numerals
used in counting, indicating the processes by which new numerals can be created
for numbers between those expressed by separate forms.
2.1.6.2. Are distinct cardinal numeral
forms used as attributes? If so, specify.
2.1.6.3. Are distinct numerals used for
counting different kinds of objects? If so, specify.
2.1.6.4. How are ordinal numerals formed?
2.1.6.5. What other derivatives of numerals
exist, and how are they formed?
2.1.6.6. List all the quantifiers, giving
as precise a translation (or explanation) as possible. Quantifiers are words like some, each, all, every, no, either, neither, both, other.
2.1.6.6.1. List all quantifier compounds,
e.g. English
anyone, everybody, nothing, nowhere, whoever, Latin quivis, quicumque. Indicate all regularities and irregularities in form and meaning within
the system.
2.1.6.6.2. Is quantification expressed by
any other means, e.g. reduplication of a noun to mean Ôevery...Õ?
2.1.7. Adverbs
2.1.7.1. How are various kinds of
comparison expressed?
2.1.7.1.1. equality (e.g. as quickly as)
2.1.7.1.2. comparative (e.g. more quickly than)
2.1.7.1.3. superlative (e.g. most quickly (of all))
2.1.7.1.4. others - specify
2.1.7.2. How are various degrees of a
quality expressed?
2.1.7.2.1. in large measure (e.g. very quickly)
2.1.7.2.2. in superabundance (e.g. too quickly)
2.1.7.2.3. in small measure (e.g. rather quickly)
2.1.7.2.4. others - specify
2.1.8. Clitics
2.1.8.1. What kinds of clitic elements
occur in the language?
2.1.8.1.1. personal pronouns
2.1.8.1.2. possessive pronouns
2.1.8.1.3. reflexive pronouns
2.1.8.1.4. reciprocal pronouns
2.1.8.1.5. auxiliary verbs
2.1.8.1.6. sentence (modal, interrogative,
negative) particles
2.1.8.1.7. sentence connectives
2.1.8.1.8. anaphoric particles
2.1.8.1.9. others - specify
2.1.8.2. What positions do these clitics
occupy?
2.1.8.2.1. preverbal
2.1.8.2.2. postverbal
2.1.8.2.3. sentence-final
2.1.8.2.4. sentence-initial
2.1.8.2.5. sentence-second position; if so,
how is this defined (e.g. after first phonological word? after first phrasal
constituent)?
2.1.8.2.6. other positions - specify
2.1.8.3. What is the relative order of
clitics?
2.1.8.4. Are there any restrictions on
possible combinations of clitics?
2.1.8.5. Are there means of expressing the
meaning of the excluded combinations?
2.2.
Derivational morphology
What possibilities exist for deriving
members of one category from those of the same or another category? For each
pair of categories, indicate the formal means of derivation, and their semantic
correlates. Are any of these processes iterative (e.g. double diminutive, causative
of causative)? Indicate the degree of productivity of each process, and of its
semantic regularity.
2.2.1.1. nouns from nouns
2.2.1.2. nouns from verbs
2.2.1.2.1. To what extent is the syntax of
deverbal nouns similar to that of a sentence, and to what extent like that of a
nonderived noun?
2.2.1.3. nouns from adjectives
2.2.1.3.1. To what extent is the syntax of
deadjectival nouns similar to that of a sentence, and to what extent like that
of a nonderived noun?
2.2.1.4. nouns from adverbs
2.2.1.5. nouns from any other category
2.2.2.1. verbs from nouns
2.2.2.2. verbs from verbs (see also the
section on voice, 2.1.3.1 )
2.2.2.3. verbs from adjectives
2.2.2.4. verbs from adverbs
2.2.2.5. verbs from any other category
2.2.3.1. adjectives from nouns
2.2.3.2. adjectives from verbs
2.2.3.3. adjectives from adjectives
2.2.3.4. adjectives from adverbs
2.2.3.5. adjectives from any other category
2.2.4.1. adverbs from nouns
2.2.4.2. adverbs from verbs
2.2.4.3. adverbs from adjectives
2.2.4.4. adverbs from adverbs
2.2.4.5. adverbs from any other category
2.2.5. any other possibilities
2.2.6.1. Describe the possibilities for
forming complex pre-/postpositions.
2.2.6.1.1. two prepositions (distinguish
genuine compound prepositions of the type on to from sequences resulting from
cases where a preposition has as its argument a prepositional phrase, e.g. from behind. In English these can for example be
distinguished by means of the modification, e.g. from ten yards behind the car, *on ten yards to the table)
2.2.6.1.2. nominal formations, e.g. in front of
2.2.6.1.3. verbal formations, e.g. depending on
2.2.6.1.4. adjectival formations
2.2.6.1.5. other types
2.2.6.2. Are there simple derived
prepositions?
2.2.6.2.1. denominal
2.2.6.2.2. deverbal, e.g. given
2.2.6.2.3. deadjectival, e.g. like
2.2.6.2.4. others
2.2.6.3. Compound morphology
What possibilities exist for compounding
members of the same or different categories, and what semantic value(s) does
each have? Answer for each of the combinations in 2.2.1-5. Indicate whether the
components of a compound word may themselves be compound (e.g. English blackboard
eraser).
3. Phonology
The following questions are concerned with
the distinctive phonological units of the language, their phonetic realization,
their distribution, and their morphophonological relationships with each other.
All examples cited in section 3 should be
glossed. The IPA phonetic symbols should be used for examples wherever they
exist. Articulations not provided for in the IPA system may be represented by
any standard typographic symbol not otherwise utilized in the description.
Articulatory descriptions of phonetic
elements should be made in terms of the double-naming system as far as the
place of articulation is concerned. At least the following categories occur:
|
active articulator
|
passive articulator
|
traditional nomenclature
|
|
labio-
|
labial
|
(bi)labial
|
|
labio-
|
dental
|
labiodental
|
|
denti-
|
dental
|
|
|
apico-
|
labial
|
|
|
apico-
|
interdental
|
(inter)dental
|
|
apico-
|
dental
|
dental
|
|
apico-
|
alveolar
|
alveolar
|
|
apico-
|
postalveolar
|
postalveolar/retroflex
|
|
apico-
|
palatal
|
retroflex
|
|
lamino-
|
interdental
|
(inter)dental
|
|
lamino-
|
dental
|
dental
|
|
lamino-
|
alveolar
|
alveolar
|
|
lamino-
|
postalveolar
|
palatoalveolar
|
|
sublamino-
|
palatal
|
retroflex
|
|
dorso-
|
postalveolar
|
alveolopalatal
|
|
dorso-
|
palatal
|
palatal
|
|
dorso-
|
velar
|
velar
|
|
dorso-
|
uvular
|
uvular
|
|
radico-
|
pharyngeal
|
pharyngeal
|
|
glottal
|
glottal
|
glottal
|
and also coarticulated combinations of
these.
The following secondary articulations may
occur:
1. glottalization
2. pharyngealization
3. velarization
4. palatalization
5. labialization
6. nasalization
7. other
8. combinations thereof
As far as the manner of articulation is
concerned, the following categories should be recognized:
a) for nonsyllabics (consonants)
1. plosive (plain)
2. affricate
3. fricative
4. approximant (approximation of two
articulators without producing a turbulent airstream)
5. trill (one articulator vibrating against
another)
6. tap (one articulator thrown against
another)
7. flap (one articulator striking another
in passing)
8. nasal
b) for syllabics
1. vowel
2. syllabic nasal
3. syllabic fricative
4. etc.
It will also be necessary to distinguish
laterals.
Differences in voice onset may occur:
1. fully voiced
2. partially voiced
3. voiceless unaspirated
4: aspirated
5. others
Different types of voicing may occur:
1. ordinary voicing
2. creaky voice
3. breathy voice
4. murmur
5. others
Describe the airstream mechanisms as
1. pulmonic egressive
2. implosive (to be distinguished carefully
from glottalized, i.e. with glottal constriction)
3. ejective (idem)
4. velaric ingressive
5. others
3.1.
Phonological units (segmental)
3.1.1. What are the distinctive segments of
the language?
3.1.2. List the elements as follows, giving
details of any significant allophony and phonetic realization:
3.1.2.1. nonsyllabics
3.1.2.1.1. plosives and affricates
3.1.3.1.2. fricatives
3.1.2.1.3. nasals (not nasalized or
prenasalized elements, only true nasals)
3.1.2.1.4. liquids
3.1.2.1.5. glides/semivowels (describe the phonetic realization
of semivowels in terms of vowel positions)
3.1.2.1.6. others
3.1.2.2. syllabics
3.1.2.2.1. vowels: plain, nasalized,
glottalized, pharyngealized, etc. (significant degrees of these may occur)
3.1.2.2.2. others
3.1.2.3. Do any of the above occur only in
recognizable (to the speakers) loanwords? Which?
3.1.2.4. Are there restrictions on the
occurrence of any of the above units in any wordclasses? Which and where?
3.2.
Phonotactics
3.2.1. Does the language admit
3.2.1.1. wordfinal consonants?
3.2.1.1.1. If so, describe any
restrictions.
3.2.1.2. initial consonants?
3.2.1.2.1. If so, describe any
restrictions.
3.2.2.1. Does the language admit
3.2.2.1.1. wordinitial consonant clusters?
3.2.2.1.2. wordfinal consonant clusters?
3.2.2.1.3. wordmedial consonant clusters?
3.2.2.2. Describe the possible
3.2.2.2.1. wordinitial consonant clusters.
3.2.2.2.2. wordfinal consonant clusters.
3.2.2.3. Describe the possible wordmedial
consonant clusters if they differ from the product of the final and initial
clusters.
3.2.3. Does the language admit
3.2.3.1. wordfinal vowels?
3.2.3.1.1. If so, describe any
restrictions.
3.2.3.2. wordinitial vowels?
3.2.3.2.1. If so, describe any
restrictions.
3.2.3.3. sequences of (syllabic) vowels?
3.2.3.3.1. If so, describe any restrictions.
3.2.4. Does the structure of lexical
morphemes correspond with the possibilities for wordstructure? If not, how does
it differ?
3.2.5.1. Describe how medial units or
clusters are assigned to syllables. Does this depend on morphological
structure?
3.2.5.2. What is the canonical syllable
type?
3.2.6.1. Are there any restrictions between
word/syllable initial units or clusters and the
following vowels or syllabic elements? Describe these
3.2.6.2. Are there any restrictions between
word/syllable final units or clusters and the
preceding vowels or syllabic elements? Describe these
3.2.6.3. Are there any restrictions between
syllable initial units or clusters and syllable final units or clusters, or
next-syllable initial units or clusters? Describe these.
3.2.6.4. Are there any restrictions between
the vowels or syllabics of successive syllables, in other words does the
language display vowel harmony?
If so, does this apply across morpheme
boundaries, or only within morphemes? Are there any exceptions to morpheme
internal or crossmorpheme vowel harmony? If so, describe these.
3.2.6.5. Does consonant harmony exist? If
so, describe.
3.2.6.6. Are there any other restrictions
between adjacent or nonadjacent units or clusters? If so, describe these.
3.2.6.7. Are there any differences between
the phonotactic patterns allowed with different wordclasses? If so, describe
these.
3.3.
Suprasegmentals
3.3.1. Are there distinctive degrees of
length in
3.3.1.1. vowels?
3.3.1.2. other syllabics?
3.3.1.3. glides/semivowels?
3.3.1.4. liquids?
3.3.1.5. nasals?
3.3.1.6. fricatives?
3.3.1.7. stops and fricatives?
Illustrate for each of these the different
degrees of length.
3.3.2.1. Does stress play any role in the
language?
3.3.2.2. What is/are the phonetic correlate(s) of stress in
the language?
3.3.2.3. Is there a distinction between
different levels of stress (as opposed to nonstress)? If so, illustrate,
indicating how the different stress levels are realized phonetically.
3.3.2.4. Is the position of stress
constant, e.g. always on the first syllable, antepenultimate syllable, etc.? If
so, illustrate.
3.3.2.5. If the position of the stress is
not constant, is it forecastable solely in terms of the phonotactic structure
of the word? If so describe the rules that determine its placement.
3.3.2.6. If not, is the situation the same
as in 3.3.2.4-5 with the exception of a small number of forms? Give these. Are
they recognizable loanwords?
3.3.2.7. For further questions on stress,
see the section on morphophonology (3.5)
3.3.3.1. Does the language make a
distinctive use of pitch (are there forms distinguished purely by pitch)?
3.3.3.2. Is pitch used to distinguish
lexical items from one another?
3.3.3.3. Is the use of pitch distinctive
for only a small portion of the vocabulary?
3.3.3.4. Is pitch used to distinguish
morphologically different forms of the same word or lexeme?
3.3.3.5. What are the different tones
(distinctive pitch types) within syllables?
3.3.3.5.1. level tones - list
3.3.3.5.2. contour tones - list
3.3.3.6. Are any of these tones restricted
in their occurrence to particular types of syllabic element (e.g. contour tones
only on long vowels)?
3.3.3.7. Are any of these tones restricted
to occurring after particular types of nonsyllabic (consonant) or restricted to
occurring before particular types of nonsyllabic (consonant) or subject to a
combination of these restrictions? Describe.
3.3.3.8.1. List the tones occurring on
monosyllables.
3.3.3.8.2. List the possible sequences of
tones occurring with
3.3.3.8.2.1. bisyllables.
3.3.3.8.2.2. trisyllables.
3.3.3.8.2.3. quadrisyllables.
3.3.3.9. Is there any general principle
governing the possibilities of tone-sequences with polysyllables?
3.3.3.10. Describe the interaction of tone
and stress, if there is any. (Even if the language does not make distinctive
use of pitch, describe the patterns of relative pitch height relative to the
stressed elements in a word).
3.3.3.11.1. Does downdrift occur with
3.3.3.11.1.1. sequences of high tones?
3.3.3.11.1.2. sequences of low tones?
3.3.3.11.1.3. sequences of other tones?
3.3.3.11.1.4. alternate high and low tones?
3.3.3.11.1.5. other combinations?
3.3.3.11.2. Does updrift occur? If so,
where?
3.3.3.11.3. If down-/updrift occurs with more than one type of
sequence, does it proceed at the same rate or a different rate with different
sequences?
3.3.3.12. For further questions on tone,
see the section on morphophonology (3.5).
3.3.4.1. Describe the major types of
intonation pattern having syntactic or semantic, rather than emotional,
function, e.g. yes-no question, statement, etc.
3.3.4.2. In normal (noncontrastive,
nonemphatic) intonation, where does the intonation peak come? How is this
determined? Illustrate with different kinds of sentences.
3.3.4.3. Does the language make use of
emphatic intonation? Illustrate fully.
3.3.4.4. Does the language make use of
contrastive stress? Describe the effect on the intonation peak and illustrate.
Can more than one element in a sentence be contrastively stressed? Illustrate.
3.3.4.5. Within the major intonation types,
are there subtypes with partially different patterns? Describe. Do these have
any syntactic or semantic implications?
3.3.4.6. Describe the interaction of
intonation patterns with the patterns in tone-height due to stress and tone
phenomena.
3.3.4.7. Describe any effects on segmental
units due to the position of the intonation peak or the type of intonation
contour.
3.4.
Morphophonology (segmental)
In sections 3.4 and 3.5, indicate the
conditioning factors for the phenomena discussed.
3.4.1.1. Are there assimilatory processes
in the phonology (morphophonology) of the language? Give at least details of
such processes that involve alternations between different phonemes (indicating
whether or not productive), and any others involving significant phonetic
changes.
3.4.1.2. Are there dissimilatory processes?
Give full details, including productivity.
3.4.1.3. Are there other alternations
between segments? Describe all such alternations, giving details of the degree
of productivity involved.
3.4.2. Are there metathesis processes? Give
details of all such processes, indicating productivity.
3.4.3. Are there processes of coalescence
or split (syntagmatic) in the language? Give details of all such processes,
indicating productivity.
3.4.4.1. Are there deletion processes in
the language? Give details of all such processes, indicating productivity.
3.4.4.2. Are there insertion processes in
the language? Give details of all such processes, indicating productivity.
3.4.5. Are there processes of reduplication
(partial or complete) in the language? Give details of all such processes,
indicating productivity.
3.4.6. Other processes.
NB: In the discussion of all the above
processes, indicate whether recent loanwords undergo them or not.
3.5.
Morphophonology (suprasegmental)
3.5.1.1. Is the stress constant under
morphological processes and compounding?
3.5.1.2. If not, describe the various
changes in stress-assignment and the types of process that inspire these
changes exhaustively.
3.5.1.3. Is the position of the stress
forecastable in terms of the phonological structure of the stem and the
morphological and compounding processes it undergoes?
3.5.1.4. If not, is it the case that all
instances are predictable except for a small number? If so, list these.
3.5.2.1. Is the tonal structure of the stem
constant under processes of morphological change and compounding?
3.5.2.2. If not, describe the various
changes that occur and the types of process that inspire them exhaustively.
3.5.2.3. List all forms with irregular
tonal behaviour and illustrate the conditions under which they behave
irregularly.
3.5.2.4.1. Does downstep or upstep occur
and if so, under what circumstances?
3.5.2.4.2. Does double or multiple
downstep/upstep occur? If so, in what circumstances?
3.5.3. Do particular types of intonation
pattern cause any phonological change in the segmental elements they overlie?
If so, describe fully
4. Ideophones
and interjections
24.1. Does the language make use of
ideophones ?
If so, give as complete a list as possible.
4.2. Does the
language make use of interjections that do not conform to the regular
principles regarding the phonological structure of words?
If so, give as many examples of such forms
as possible.
5. Lexicon
5.1. Structured
semantic fields
List the lexical items in the following
semantic fields, with glosses or explanations, indicating the parameters that
are relevant to the semantic distinctions made:
5.1.1. kinship terminology
5.1.1.1. by blood
5.1.1.2. by partial blood
5.1.1.3. by marriage
5.1.1.4. by adoption
5.1.1.4.1. permanent/temporary
5.1.1.4.2. religious/secular
5.1.1.5. by fostering
5.1.1.6. by affiliation
5.1.1.7. other parameters
5.1.2. colour terminology
Distinguish basic colour terms and other
colour terms that indicate finer distinctions within the basic terms. Where
possible, for each colour term indicate (a) its approximate range (b) its locus
(the most typical value referred to by that colour term).
5.1.3. body parts
5.1.4. cooking terminology
5.1.5. any other structured semantic fields
5.2. Basic
vocabulary
Give the normal equivalent, in the language
concerned, of the following items: