Lecture 9: Semantics I

Outline

1. What do we mean by meaning?

2. How do we combine meanings?

3. How does semantics interact with syntax?

 

[(2) and (3) will be covered in next class]

1. What do we mean by 'meaning'?

Is the meaning of an expression what it refers to in the world?

Sense and Reference

book vs. textbook (can pick out same object in world under some but not all conditions)

Clark Kent vs. Superman (2 meanings for Lois Lane: always same objects in world)

the president of the US (same meaning, but picks out different individual at different times)

you (person being addressed by speaker)

now (time of utterance)

 

reference: what is picked out by a particular utterance

sense: what any utterance of an expression could pick out

[Therefore, meanings need to at least provide a specification of the sense of an expression, or what it could refer to.]

Do meanings (senses) correspond to objects or events in the world?

Speakers perspective on events is part of meaning

In each of the following pairs, both sentences can describe exactly the same events. The only difference is in the speaker's perspective (focusing on one or the other participant in the event).

1a. The Orioles beat the Braves

1b. The Braves lost to the Orioles

 

2a. Wallace gave Gromit cheese.

2b. Gromit received cheese from Wallace.

 

3a. The dog chased the cat.

3b. The cat fled the dog.

Deixis: expressions whose reference depends on circumstances of utterance

my, mine, you, your, we, ours

here, there, on your left, keep right!

"go straight ahead for 3 blocks, then take a left, and then the second left after that, and then you want the third house on the right"

now, yesterday, in half an hour

more, another

Referential dependencies: expression whose reference depends on other expressions in a sentence or discourse.

4a. Gromit said he wanted more cheese.

4b. Clinton and Gingrich detest each other.

4c. Every student said she loved syntax.

4d. Nobody thought he would win the lottery.

Expressions that encode shared knowledge of speakers

the - definite determiner

a - indefinite determiner

"Last night when I was coming home I noticed a middle-aged man with a large ferocious-looking dog hanging around a neighbors driveway...."

 

"After a while the neighbor came walking down the street, at which point the man and the dog moved to the other side of the house..."

[new person joins conversation]

"We were just talking about a strange guy with a dog who I saw last night..."

Notice that in any of these examples, substituting the for a, or vice versa, produces a sentence which seems highly inappropriate, or even ungrammatical or misleading.

2. How meanings combine

[many sections of these notes not covered in class or readings: therefore not required]

Adj + N Combinations (not covered)

red ball (something that is both a ball and red)

wooden chair (something that is both a chair and wooden)

happy camper (somebody who is both a camper and happy)

but...

big cookie vs. big gorilla (NOT something that is both a cookie/gorilla and big)

short interview vs. short giraffe (NOT something that is both an interview/giraffe and short)

good dancer vs. good linguist (NOT somebody who is both a dancer/linguist and good)

 

good thief (? somebody who is a thief and who is good ?)

 

former leader (? somebody who is a leader and who is former ?)

fake Rolex (? something that is a Rolex and that is fake ?)

alleged murderer (? somebody who is a murderer and who is alleged ?)

Thematic Roles (covered in readings/assignment 5)

5a. Gromit ate the cheese
    agent        theme

5b. Wallace found the leftovers
    agent           theme

eat: V, agent, theme

find: V, agent, theme

 

6. Wallace put the cheese in the fridge
   agent         theme      location

put: V, agent, theme, location

Not only Agents are Subjects

7a. The sun melted the ice.
      agent         theme

7b. The ice melted
      theme

melt: V, (agent), theme

 

8a. Billy      fears his big brother.
    experiencer        stimulus

8b. Billy      respects his linguistics TA.
    experiencer           stimulus

fear: V, experiencer, stimulus

respect: V, experiencer, stimulus

Interpretation of Subject NP may depend on VP (not covered)

"Bare plurals", i.e. plural NPs with no determiner.

e.g. dogs, comets, firemen, carpenter ants

When the remainder of the sentence describes a 'temporary state or situation' the bare plural in subject position is interpreted to mean 'some X'.

 

9a. Dogs are sitting in my back yard.

9b. Mice were chasing my cat all over the house.

9c. Ghosts have been sighted here often in the past.

 

When the remainder of the sentence describes a 'permanent state or situation' the bare plural in subject position is interpreted to mean '(just about) all X'.

 

10a. Diamonds are forever.

10b. Dogs are smarter than cats.

10c. Firemen are tall.

10d. Squirrels run around back yards.

 

...and what does this case mean? does it mean that if I put a wolf in the trunk of my car and start driving north it will grow?! [example from G. Carlson (1977), Reference to Kinds in English]

 

11. Wolves get larger as you drive north from here.

3. How does semantics interact with syntax?

A. Syntax and semantics are somewhat independent. (self-explanatory: this point is important)

We have already discussed the fact that syntactic patterns cannot be entirely reduced to issues of meaning. Furthermore, we should also make sure to dispel another very common myth about the relationship between syntax and meaning ... this is one you may have heard before.

Nouns do not refer to persons, places and things

12. nouns related to verbs...

a. the destruction of the city

b. the winning of the race

c. the sale of the territory

Verbs do not refer to actions

13. verbs that don't denote actions...

a. A muffin costs $1.45.

b. Sue resembles Madonna.

B. Syntax can explain semantic regularities: pronouns & reflexives (not covered in class etc.)

Nevertheless, there are some semantic facts which can be explained in syntactic terms, such as the following examples, involving when a pronoun or reflexive in English can be referentially dependent on another NP in the sentence.

14a. Jane bit herself.

14b. *Jane said that herself was sleeping.

14c. *Jane said that the dog bit herself.

Generalization: reflexive NPs (himself, myself etc.) can only be referentially dependent on an NP in the same clause.

15a. *Jane bit her.

15b. Jane said that she was sleeping.

15c. Jane said that the dog bit her.

Generalization: pronouns (him, her, she, me etc.) cannot be referentially dependent on an NP in the same clause.

16a. *She likes Jane.

16b. *She thinks that the dog bit Jane.

16c. The fact that the dog bit her worries Jane.

16d. Her mother likes Jane.

Generalization: (approximate) a pronoun cannot be referentially dependent on a NP that is lower in the tree than the pronoun. [(c) and (d) are fine, because neither the pronoun is higher than the coreferring NP, nor vice-versa.]

C. Semantics can explain syntactic regularities: thematic roles (discussed at end of lecture 11)

Additionally, there are syntactic patterns that can be explained in terms of semantic notions, such as the following. (17) and (18) show a range of possible constructions involving verbs which assign an agent thematic role. (19) and (20) show that when the verb assigns an experiencer thematic role instead of an agent, one of the constructions, the nominal passive, is no longer possible.

17a. The barbarians destroyed Rome. (verbal active)

17b. The barbarians destruction of Rome. (nominal active)

17c. Rome was destroyed by the barbarians. (verbal passive)

17d. The destruction of Rome by the barbarians. (nominal passive)

 

18a. The realtor sold the house.

18b. The realtors sale of the house.

18c. The house was sold by the realtor.

18d. The sale of the house by the realtor.

 

19a. John respects Mary.

19b. Johns respect for Mary.

19c. Mary is respected by John.

19d. *The respect for Mary by John.

 

20a. Apple fears Microsoft.

20b. Apples fear of Microsoft.

20c. Microsoft is feared by Apple.

20d. *The fear of Microsoft by Apple.

Generalization: in nominal passives, the by-phrase PP must contain an NP with an AGENT theta role.